Table 1 - Etiologies of dysfunction above the brainstem
From the following article
Oral, pharyngeal and upper esophageal sphincter motility disorders
Benson T. Massey and Reza Shaker
GI Motility online (2006)
doi:10.1038/gimo19
| Ischemic | |
| Trauma | |
| Metabolic/degenerative | Parkinson's disease |
| Alzheimer's/other dementias | |
| Cerebral palsy | |
| Huntington's disease | |
| Wilson's disease | |
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis | |
| Tardive dyskinesia/torticollis | |
| Adrenoleukodystrophy | |
| Infectious/inflammatory/immune | Whipple's disease |
| Multiple sclerosis | |
| Infectious encephalitis/meningitis | |
| Lupus cerebritis | |
| Syphilis | |
| Diphtheria | |
| Neoplastic | Primary brain |
| Meningioma | |
| Metastases | |
| Epilepsy | |
| Iatrogenic | Radiation |
| Surgery | |
| Medication (sedatives, dopamine antagonists) |
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