Introduction

The concept of modernization, traditionally dominated by Western paradigms, has witnessed a significant shift with the advent of Chinese modernization. This unique path to modernization, highlighted in the report of the Twentieth National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) on October 16, 2022, depicts a model of socialist modernization that integrates universal processes with distinctly Chinese characteristics (Xi, 2022). Chinese modernization, as a socialist modernization model, has become the focus of international attention. It not only illustrates China’s development achievements but triggers discussions about the sustainability and universality of its development model. In the context of globalization, news communication plays a key role in shaping the image of a country (Xu, 1996), and the coverage of Chinese modernization is one of the important aspects. It reflects perceptions and evaluations in a particular cultural and political context (Foucault, 1979; Gelcich et al., 2005; Michel and Colin, 1980).

Amidst the backdrop of the 50th anniversary of China–Malaysia diplomatic relations, the bonds between these nations have deepened through extensive political, economic, and cultural exchanges. Malaysia’s role as a central player in China’s Belt and Road Initiative further accentuates the need to scrutinize how Malaysian media discourses construct and interpret Chinese modernization. Such an inquiry is timely and necessary, considering the potential for misunderstanding, prejudice, and stigmatization of Chinese modernization in the international media, often influenced by Western-centered modernization discourses.

This study attempts to explore the discourse construction and reporting strategies of Malaysian media on Chinese modernization through Corpus-assisted critical discourse analysis (Baker et al., 2008). As Fowler (2013) stated, news is a product of social construction, reflecting and shaping the dominant values of society. In recent years, researchers have increasingly combined corpus methods with news value analysis (Bednarek et al., 2021; Potts et al., 2015; Zhang and Cheung, 2022) to make up for the shortcomings of qualitative-only methods in terms of representativeness and generalizability. This study also follows this trend, provides a new perspective for understanding the representation of Chinese modernization in international media through a systematic analysis of 192 related reports in Malaysian media, promotes cultural exchanges and mutual understanding between the two countries in news reports, improves the effect of foreign communication, builds a foreign discourse system of Chinese modernization and enhances China’s international discourse power.

Literature review

Against the backdrop of globalization, the discourse construction of Chinese modernization has emerged as a significant topic within the international academic community. The term “modernization,” originating from the Renaissance period, initially referred to the spirit and characteristics of a new era transcending the medieval. Western modernization has progressed through three phases: the British Industrial Revolution and French Democratic Revolution, German industrialization, and the American Democratic and Industrial Revolutions, characterized by capitalist private ownership, a free market, and a modern state institution, either decentralized or centralized, thus forming Western capitalist modernity (Parsons, 1953). However, Chinese modernization presents a pathway distinct from the Western model. Apter (1965) emphasizes the uniqueness of the Chinese model in the political realm. Concurrently, Gasan (2022) criticizes the modernization concept as equated to Europeanization, highlighting the distinctiveness of the Chinese path. International scholars study political discourse (Van Dijk, 1993) and nation image (Saunders, 2013) communication strategies, providing a basis for research on Chinese modernization in an international context. However, research on the discourse construction and communication strategies of Chinese modernization by foreign scholars remains relatively scarce. Rozman (1989) believes that the process of Chinese modernization has integrated experiences from other countries, creating a unique development path. Domestically, Dai (2023), Li and Liu (2022), and Huang (2023) have discussed the internal discourse construction context, connotations, and values of Chinese modernization, emphasizing the importance of constructing a discourse system with Chinese characteristics.

Construction strategies in media discourse are pivotal for maneuvering public perception and influencing the framing of international events and policies. These strategies, rooted in the principles of framing theory and narrative construction (Entman, 1993; Goffman, 1974), enable media outlets to highlight certain aspects of Chinese modernization while potentially sidelining others, thus steering the discourse towards particular interpretations or conclusions. This selective representation is instrumental in constructing a narrative that aligns with specific ideological or national interests, contributing significantly to the shaping of the nation’s image on the global stage. At the heart of this discourse lies the pivotal role of media in shaping perceptions of China’s modernization efforts, spotlighting the environmental, economic, and policy narratives that collectively paint a comprehensive picture of the nation’s developmental ethos (Yang and Wang, 2023; Su and Hu, 2021; Wu et al., 2022). Particularly in Malaysia, the interplay between media narratives and Chinese modernization emerges as a testament to the deep-rooted economic and cultural ties that have historically underpinned Sino-Malaysian relations. This relationship, enriched by student exchanges and economic cooperation, not merely promotes bilateral exchanges but also serves as a conduit for demonstrating China’s soft power and its path toward a unique model of modernization, distinct from the Western paradigm (Lin, 2008; Shi, 2003; Zeng and Wang, 2010; Zhou and Hu, 2010).

Methodologically, the corpus-based critical discourse analysis stands out for its ability to unravel the linguistic and narrative strategies that underpin media discourse, offering a granular exploration of how language use, framing, and thematic emphasis shape the portrayal of Chinese modernization in the Malaysian media landscape (Qian, 2010; Yang and Wu, 2012; Liu and Han, 2016). This approach not merely enables a detailed examination of the media’s role in shaping narratives and ideologies but also facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the dialogic interplay between domestic imperatives and international perceptions. The integrated analysis thus reveals the complexity and multidimensionality of the discourse surrounding Chinese modernization, highlighting the nuanced ways in which media reports construct and convey social issues and news values in a rapidly globalizing world.

The domestic and international literature review shows that there are some accumulated results in the study of Chinese modernization. Related theoretical research provides some theoretical support for this study, but there is a lack of comprehensive and systematic research on the international communication of Chinese modernization. This study explores the issue of meaning construction in Malaysian media reports on Chinese modernization discourse, using corpus critical discourse analysis for a comprehensive analysis of Malaysian media reports, striving to enrich and deepen the application of case studies on the international communication of Chinese modernization, and providing new theoretical and empirical perspectives for cross-cultural media research.

Methodology

This study uses corpus critical discourse analysis, which combines qualitative discourse analysis with quantitative corpus analysis techniques. This method can overcome the limitations of subjectivity and selectivity that traditional qualitative analysis may bring (Widdowson, 2000) and, at the same time, provide statistical data support through a large number of texts in real contexts, thus realizing objectivity and systematicity in discourse research (Du, 2021), which provides a comprehensive and objective methodology for in-depth investigation on the construction of Chinese modernization discourse in Malaysian media. The detailed steps of this study are as follows:

Step 1: Research contextualization

In terms of contextualization, this study examines how the concept of Chinese modernization is presented in Malaysian media. Considering that Chinese modernization is not only a narrative of China’s own development, but also a focus of attention for the international community, especially for countries that have close ties with China, such as Malaysia. Therefore, Malaysian media reports may reflect the country’s perceptions and evaluations of China’s political, economic, and social development, and these reports themselves constitute the interpretation and construction of Chinese modernization.

Subsequently, previous studies in the field are reviewed to identify knowledge gaps and research gaps in the existing research. Through the literature review, it was found that although Chinese modernization as a research topic has been explored in various fields, relatively little research has been conducted on how the Malaysian media constructs related discourses. This finding led to the specification of the research objective, which is to explore and reveal how the Malaysian media represent, interpret, and shape the discourse of Chinese modernization.

After defining the context and objectives of the study, specific research questions were formulated that would guide the subsequent corpus compilation, keyword analysis, and qualitative analysis. The research questions include:

RQ1: What discourse strategies have been employed by Malaysian media on the topic of Chinese modernization?

RQ2: What are Malaysian media’s attitudes towards China’s modernization?

RQ3: How is the discourse system of Chinese modernization constructed in Malaysian media?

By examining these questions, this study seeks to advance knowledge of Chinese modernization in international communication while also offering fresh viewpoints on cross-cultural interactions and mutual comprehension in news reporting between China and Malaysia.

Step 2: Data collection and sample selection

A total of 192 media reports related to Chinese modernization were meticulously selected from influential mainstream media in Malaysia, covering a period from October 16, 2022, to October 16, 2023. This selection was strategically chosen to align with the significant political event of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party (2022.10.16–2022.10.22) of China, aiming to capture the immediate media discourse surrounding Chinese modernization. And the coverage is shown in Fig. 1. These stories cover reports from 14 different media in Malaysia, which are KXG Alloy, Sabah Media, Cision PR Newswire, Malay.people, RayHaber, Sicopro, The Star, New Straits Times, Malay Mail, The Sun Daily, Sinchew Daily, China Press, Nanyang Siang Pau, and Oriental Daily, with a total of 192 articles, totaling 138,647 words, as shown in Table 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Statistical chart of Malaysian media coverage of Chinese modernization.

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Table 1 Composition of the news corpus.
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The reports cover Chinese, English, and Malay languages. Google and deepl translations were utilized to help convert the Chinese and Malay reports into English to maintain consistency in the analysis. All reports were saved in text format, with non-textual elements removed, to self-construct an English corpus for subsequent analysis. All reports were preliminarily reviewed to confirm the relevance and categorize sentiment tendencies (positive, negative, and neutral) based on the content of the reports. To enhance the methodological rigor and ensure the reproducibility of the study, the following criteria were employed for manually categorizing the media reports into positive, negative, and neutral sentiments:

Positive reports

These include articles that portray Chinese modernization in a favorable light, highlighting successes, advancements, and positive outcomes associated with China’s development model. Reports that focus on cooperation opportunities, economic growth, technological advancements, or positive diplomatic engagements related to Chinese modernization were classified under this category.

Neutral reports

Reports considered neutral offered objective viewpoints without overtly favoring positive or negative perspectives. These articles typically presented factual information, statistical data, or a mix of opinions that did not lean distinctly towards either a positive or negative portrayal of Chinese modernization.

Negative reports

Articles that critique or question aspects of Chinese modernization, including sustainability, human rights, or geopolitical tensions, were categorized as negative. Reports emphasizing challenges, problems, or controversies associated with China’s modernization efforts fell into this group.

Statistical chart of Malaysian media coverage of Chinese modernization is as follows:

As shown in Fig. 1, with the convening of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Chinese modernization has gained widespread attention from international media. Malaysian media coverage of Chinese modernization emerged at the first peak in October 2022 with as many as 20 articles focusing on the spirit of the 20th National Congress, the concept and interpretation of Chinese modernization. Influenced by Sino-Malaysian meetings, the Boao Forum for Asia, and the “Chinese Modernization and the World” forum, Malaysian media coverage saw a second peak in March and April 2023. The fluctuations in report volume in Fig. 1 reflect the sensitivity and attention of Malaysian media to the topic of Chinese modernization.

As shown in Table 1, the data in the table reflects the level of attention various media outlets have towards the topic of “Chinese Modernization”. When it comes to covering China’s modernization, Nanyang Siang Pau, China Press, The Star and Sinchew Daily are the media with the most extensive coverage. Overall, the data shows the diversity in attention and reporting styles of Malaysian media on the topic of Chinese modernization.

Step 3: Keyword analysis

According to Yu (2023), keywords are prominent words that reveal the dominant discourse in a corpus. In this study, keyword analysis will be used to explore the ways in which Malaysian media cover the topic of Chinese modernization and the contexts in which it is discussed. At the core of this analysis is the creation of a comprehensive word list covering all the words in the research corpus and their frequency of occurrence. By counting the frequency of words and examining the co-occurrence and collocation patterns of these keywords with other words, the construction of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media can be more accurately identified and understood.

In order to conduct an in-depth keyword analysis, the British National CorpusFootnote 1 (BNC) was chosen as the benchmark for generating the keyword lists in this study. The BNC was established in 1994 and is widely regarded as one of the largest and most representative corpora in the world. It contains over 100 million words of data, of which approximately 90% is derived from written texts such as newspapers, books, and essays, and the remaining 10% from spoken language such as government debates and television talk shows. This corpus brings together a rich sample of late twentieth-century British English, covering a wide range of text types, and is therefore highly representative in its coverage.

In this study, the target corpus was compared with the British National Corpus (BNC), and AntConc 4.2.4, a state-of-the-art corpus analysis tool, was utilized to determine and rank the critical values of the keywords and then to generate a list of keywords. By revealing the key terms used in the coverage of Chinese modernization, the main narratives and frames of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media are understood in depth, thus providing a solid foundation for further textual qualitative analysis.

Step 4: Qualitative analysis

Based on Fairclough’s (1989) model, this study uses the critical discourse analysis (CDA) technique to qualitatively assess how Chinese modernity is constructed and portrayed in Malaysian media. This analysis focuses on how language choices, syntactic structures, metaphors use, and narrative strategies work together to shape and convey specific discourses about Chinese modernization. By using this approach, the study hopes to uncover how Malaysian media define Chinese modernization, how they express their evaluations and attitudes through specific descriptive language, and how they use various linguistic resources to construct the narratives of their reports. This qualitative approach illuminates potential ideological and cultural trends underlying the textual construction of the Chinese modernization discourse in Malaysian media, in addition to aiding in our understanding of how it is constructed. By analyzing these practices in depth, this study will provide new insights into how the notion of Chinese modernization is understood and interpreted in a cross-cultural context.

Results

Keyword analysis

This study used AntConc 4.2.4 software developed by Anthony (2023) to search for the keyword Chinese modernization. This software is often used for quantitative research and provides functions such as indexing, word lists, and keyword lists. In this study, a list of relevant keywords was generated by comparing the target corpus containing 192 news articles (see Table 1) with BNC as its reference corpus. The results of the analysis are as follows:

Word frequency analysis

The report of the 20th CPC National Congress points out that “Chinese modernization is socialist modernization pursued under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Chinese modernization is modernization with a huge population. It is the modernization of common prosperity for all. It is the modernization of material and cultural-ethical advancement. It is the modernization of harmony between humanity and nature. It is the modernization of peaceful development” (Xi, 2022). Based on the connotation of Chinese modernization, among 20 high-frequency words only 19 words related to Chinese modernization were manually screened from the top 100 lists of terms, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Top 20 highly frequent words related to Chinese modernization.
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The frequency analysis of words related to Chinese modernization in Table 2 reveals the full range of attention given to this topic in Malaysian media. The 2745 occurrences of “China” show the prominence of China as the centerpiece of the discussion. The occurrence of “Chinese” 1116 times further emphasizes the focus on Chinese characteristics and attributes. “Development” appears 983 times, emphasizing the importance of development issues. Xi’s name appears 669 times, reflecting the key role of Chinese leaders in the process of modernization. “modernization” appears 660 times, indicating a focus on modernization issues. “countries”, “world” and “global” appear 649, 646, and 272 times respectively, highlighting the international dimension of Chinese modernization and demonstrating the importance of Chinese modernization in the international arena. “Cooperation” and “relations” appear 483 and 315 times, respectively, emphasizing the importance of international cooperation in China’s modernization strategy and showing the importance China attaches to international relations. “Malaysia” and “Asia” appear 345 and 180 times, respectively, revealing concern about China’s influence in the region. “Party” and “CPC” appear 249 and 214 times, respectively, indicating the leading role of the CPC in the process of Chinese modernization. The word “economy” is mentioned 212 times, indicating the importance of Chinese modernization on the degree of economic development. The word “future” appears 213 times, reflecting the concern for the future direction of China’s development. Meanwhile, “peace” and “community” are mentioned 172 and 187 times, respectively, reflecting the concern for social peace and community development. The frequency distribution of these keywords indicates the in-depth and multi-faceted attention of Malaysian media to Chinese modernization, covering multiple dimensions such as politics, economy, society, and international relations.

Keyword analysis

Based on the criticality scores, the 100 most salient keywords were examined for the purpose of effective discourse analysis. This list of keywords serves the dual purpose of highlighting “words worthy of further study”, showing “salience” (Baker, 2023) and indicating “the salience of a word” (Yu, 2023). This is shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Top 100 keywords of the news corpus.
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Keyword analysis usually emphasizes more meaningful lexical terms and focuses on the first 100 words in the list because they reflect the specific preferences of the corpus discourse for the topic being described (Baker et al., 2013). From the analysis of the keyword list, it can be seen that Malaysian media coverage of Chinese modernization covers a wide range of aspects. Keywords such as “China”, “Xi Jinping” and “CPC” emphasize the importance of political leadership and governance system. The words “development”, “economy” and “cooperation” reflect a focus on China’s economic development model and international cooperation. Meanwhile, the keywords “Malaysia”, “Asia” and “US” reveal the importance that the Malaysian media attaches to China’s relations with other countries and regions. Moreover, words such as “modernization”, “security” and “community” reflect the interpretation of China’s social development and modernization process, while keywords such as “Belt and Road Initiative” highlight China’s global strategic vision. The distribution and frequency of these keywords show how the Malaysian media have constructed a multidimensional understanding and interpretation of Chinese modernization while also reflecting ideological and cultural differences in reporting.

Keyword in context (KWIC) analysis

KWIC analysis reveals the specific usage of keywords in sentences, providing insights into the specific contexts of the discourse of Chinese modernization in the Malaysian media. The following examples are extracted from the corpus:

  1. (1)

    “Chinese modernization is a brilliant achievement sketched by the Chinese people under the leadership of the CPC, successfully eliminating obstacles in paving the way for development and intensifying practices.” (“Modenisasi ala China merupakan hasil cemerlang yang dilakar oleh rakyat China di bawah pimpinan PKC, yang berjaya menghapuskan ranjau duri dalam merintis jalan pembangunan dan mempergiatkan praktik.”) (Malay.people, 08/02/2023)

    As shown in Fig. 2, extract 1 provides an insightful portrayal and affirmation of Chinese modernization from the perspective of Malaysian media. In this context, the leadership role of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is emphasized, demonstrating its centrality in guiding the country’s modernization. At the same time, the active participation of the Chinese people in this process is emphasized, revealing that China’s modernization is not just an effort at the political level but also the result of the joint efforts of a wide range of people. Besides, the sentence “yang berjaya menghapuskan ranjau duri dalam merintis” (successfully eliminating hurdles in pioneering) proves the significant challenges that China has faced and overcome on its path to modernization and reflects China’s resilience in dealing with difficulties and challenges. Malaysian media thus conveyed a positive assessment of China’s complex process and multidimensional efforts to modernize, highlighting the uniqueness and achievements of Chinese modernization.

    Fig. 2
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    Concordances of Chinese modernization.

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  2. (2)

    Xi said Chinese modernization is a new model for human advancement and simultaneously dispels the myth that “modernization is equal to Westernization,” presents another picture of modernization, expands the channels for developing countries to achieve modernization, and provides a Chinese solution to aid the exploration of a better social system for humanity. (The Star, 09/02/2023)

    In extract 2, Xi Jinping’s statement on Chinese modernization was prominently featured in the Malaysian media, depicting Chinese modernization as a new model for human progress. This description challenges the traditional notion that “modernization is equal to Westernization” and emphasizes that China offers a path to modernization that is different from that of the West. It not only provides a new way for developing countries to modernize but praises China’s contribution to the search for a better path to modernization. This style of reporting shows a positive assessment of China’s role in the global modernization discourse and recognition of its unique contribution.

  3. (3)

    To achieve modernization and promote common prosperity for all the people in such a super-large economy, it is difficult to achieve it without a solid economic foundation. Chinese modernization is the modernization of common prosperity for all the people. (要在这样一个超大规模的经济体中实现现代化、推动全体人民共同富裕, 没有坚实的经济基础作为支撑是难以实现的。中国式现代化是全体人民共同富裕的现代化。) (China Press, 20/10/2022)

    Extract 3 provides insights into the unique challenges and goals that China faces in its pursuit of modernization. It points out that modernizing such a large economy and promoting common prosperity for all is a daunting task that needs to be supported by a solid economic foundation. The formulation here emphasizes that China’s modernization is not just concerned with economic growth but is also geared towards the universality of economic development, i.e. common prosperity. This description reflects the Malaysian media’s understanding of the peculiar goal of Chinese modernization, which is that China is committed to achieving not only economic development but also social equity and the well-being of its people. It shows a deep insight into China’s path of modernization, which sees it as pursuing economic growth while at the same time valuing overall social harmony and balanced development.

  4. (4)

    China is expected to improve its total factor productivity (TFP)—a main gauge of productive efficiency—as the country advances Chinese modernization and nurtures new drivers of high-quality development, experts say. (The Star, 22/3/2023)

    As shown in Fig. 3, extract 4 focuses on China’s expectations of increasing its total productivity (TFP) as it moves forward with its modernization, highlighting China’s goal of pursuing economic efficiency and high-quality development. The increase in TFP, a key measure of productivity, signals China’s commitment to not merely pursuing economic growth but to improving the efficiency and quality of its economic activities. This reflects the Malaysian media’s awareness of the emphasis on innovation and technological advancement in China’s modernization strategy, as well as insights into China’s paradigm shift in economic development. By emphasizing the increase in TFP, it conveys that China’s economic development is shifting from quantitative expansion to quality improvement and efficiency optimization, hinting at China’s increasing focus on sustainable development and internal structural optimization in the global economy.

    Fig. 3
    figure 3

    Concordances of Chinese modernization.

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  5. (5)

    The report of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China clearly summarized the five aspects of Chinese characteristics of Chinese modernization and profoundly revealed the scientific connotation of Chinese modernization. (党的二十大报告明确概括中国式现代化5个方面的中国特色, 深刻揭示中国式现代化的科学内涵。) (Oriental Daily, 16/8/2023)

    Extract 5 points out that the report of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) clearly summarizes the five aspects of Chinese modernization and profoundly reveals its scientific connotations. This indicates that the Malaysian media have attached importance to China’s in-depth elaboration of its own modernization model at both the theoretical and practical levels. By emphasizing “Chinese characteristics” and “scientific connotation”, it conveys the idea that China’s modernization is not merely an economic or technological transformation, but a comprehensive process involving multiple dimensions and taking into account China’s specific national conditions. This description reflects an understanding of the unique path of China’s modernization, i.e., it is a unique development model based on China’s national conditions. What’s more, this style of reporting showcases the Malaysian media’s attention to China’s political and theoretical developments, as well as its interest in how China defines and presents its own path of modernization on the global stage.

  6. (6)

    China expects the EU to become an important partner in China’s path of Chinese modernization and to share the opportunities of China’s huge market, institutional openness, and deepening international cooperation. (中国期待欧盟在中国式现代化道路中成为重要伙伴, 共享中国超大市场机遇、制度性开放机遇及深化国际合作机遇。) (Sinchew Daily, 01/12/2022)

    Extract 6 reveals China’s desire to seek a significant partnership with the European Union on its path to modernization and highlights opportunities to share China’s huge market, institutional openness, and deeper international cooperation. This reflects the Malaysian media’s insight into China’s global strategy that it is not only advancing its modernization domestically but also actively engaging in international cooperation, especially with important economies like the European Union. This type of coverage highlights China’s openness and willingness to cooperate in the context of globalization, as well as the international dimension of Chinese modernization. By emphasizing cooperation with the EU, it conveys that China’s modernization is not merely concerned with domestic development but also focuses on achieving mutual benefits through international cooperation and market opening. Furthermore, this description hints at China’s growing influence and active role in the global economic and political system. Some examples are from the news corpus.

  7. (7)

    We need to strengthen the alignment of development strategies, deepen high-quality cooperation, and organically combine the realization of Chinese modernization with the construction of a “prosperous Malaysia” so that China–Malaysia relations will benefit more people of the two countries. (我们要加强发展战略对接, 深化高质量合作, 将实现中国式现代化同建设“昌明大马”有机结合, 使中马关系更多惠及两国人民。)(Nanyang Siang Pau, 18/4/2023)

    As shown in Fig. 4, extract 7 emphasizes the importance of further enhancing the interface between China and Malaysia in terms of development strategies and deepening high-quality cooperation, as well as the goal of integrating the realization of Chinese modernization with “prosperous Malaysia”. This demonstrates the Malaysian media’s deep understanding of China-Malaysia cooperation, especially in terms of joint development and progress. By suggesting the strengthening of development strategies and high-quality cooperation, the passage emphasizes the importance of Sino-Malaysian cooperation while noting that such cooperation should contribute to the common prosperity of both sides. This description not only highlights China’s cooperative stance and open-door strategy in the international arena, but also illuminates China’s willingness to explore the path of development with other countries on the basis of respecting the characteristics and needs of each country. Additionally, this narrative also hints at the possibility that China and Malaysia can learn from each other in the process of their respective modernization and achieve mutual benefits through cooperation.

    Fig. 4
    figure 4

    Concordances of Chinese modernization.

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  8. (8)

    President Xi Jinping is taking the helm and leading the way for Chinese modernization with the sentiment and responsibility of “I will live without myself and live up to the people.”(习近平主席正以“我将无我、不负人民”的情怀和担当, 为中国式现代化掌舵领航。) (China Press, 13/6/2023)

    Extract 8 describes Chinese President Xi Jinping’s leadership role and personal commitment in the modernization of China. In this extract, the expression “I will live without myself and live up to the people” highlights Xi Jinping’s deep commitment and sacrifice to the people as a national leader and emphasizes his personal commitment and sense of responsibility in promoting the country’s modernization. This reflects the Malaysian media’s recognition of Xi’s pivotal role in China’s path to modernization as a central figure in China’s pursuit of progress and development. By highlighting Xi’s leadership role, the quote conveys an awareness of the centrality and influence of China’s political leadership in the country’s development strategy. Moreover, such a description indicates the Malaysian media’s positive assessment of Chinese leaders’ assumption of social responsibility and advancement of the well-being of all people, showing appreciation for the important responsibilities and efforts of the Chinese leadership in the country’s modernization process.

  9. (9)

    Pushing forward new urbanization measures, improving people’s well-being, and sharing fresh opportunities in Chinese modernization with the world will also be an area of interest, added Liu. (The Star, 28/3/2023)

    Extract 9 focuses on a range of measures taken by China in its modernization process, including promoting new urbanization, improving people’s well-being, and sharing with the world new opportunities arising from China’s modernization. This reflects the Malaysian media’s multidimensional perspective on China’s modernization strategy, particularly in terms of urbanization, social well-being, and international cooperation. By emphasizing new urbanization, the quote reveals China’s pursuit of a more balanced and sustainable path in urban development. At the same time, the reference to improving people’s well-being shows that China’s modernization is not just concerned with economic growth but also focuses on improving people’s quality of life and social welfare. In addition, the reference to sharing the opportunities of China’s modernization with the world reflects China’s active participation in the global arena and its willingness to share the fruits of development. Overall, it conveys the Malaysian media’s awareness of the positive efforts and achievements that China has demonstrated in comprehensive development, social progress, and international cooperation.

  10. (10)

    China is advancing Chinese modernization with its high-quality development, which will bring new opportunities to cooperation between China and Ethiopia, said Chinese President Xi Jinping here on Wednesday.(The Star, 24/8/2023)

Extract 10 reflects Chinese President Xi Jinping’s discourse on Chinese modernization, with a particular emphasis on the new opportunities for cooperation arising from China’s high-quality development and what this means for cooperative relations between China and Ethiopia. This shows the Malaysian media’s awareness of the emphasis on high-quality and sustainable development in China’s modernization process and the belief that this approach to development not only benefits China itself but also opens up new possibilities for international cooperation with other countries, such as Ethiopia. By referring to Xi Jinping’s words, the quote proves the importance that the Chinese leadership places on foreign cooperation, especially in promoting co-development and building mutually beneficial partnerships. In addition to highlighting China’s proactive involvement in international development, this description also shows the strengthening of China’s cooperative ties with African nations, particularly with regard to their shared goals of modernization and development. This sheds light on the Malaysian media’s understanding of China’s significance within the global framework of South-South cooperation as well as its role as a global development partner.

KWIC’s analysis of these examples reveals the multidimensional perspective of the discourse of Chinese modernization in the Malaysian media. These reports highlight China’s involvement in the international arena and its cooperative relationships with nations like Malaysia, in addition to portraying the perception of China’s domestic political and economic progress. This diversity of coverage reveals the Malaysian media’s understanding of Chinese modernization, reflecting international perspectives and geopolitical awareness in the context of globalization.

In summary, through the corpus analysis of the topic of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media reports, it can be seen that Malaysian media focuses on China’s economic development, international cooperation, and globalization process when reporting on Chinese modernization. These media reports cover not just the economic dimension but also the political, social, and cultural dimensions, resulting in a multidimensional and comprehensive picture of China’s modernization. In addition, Malaysian media coverage of Chinese modernization indicates an awareness and appreciation of China’s growing influence in the global economic and political arena.

Qualitative analysis

Based on Fairclough’s model, the qualitative analysis of Chinese modernization involves examining the choice of language, syntactic structure, use of metaphors, and narrative strategies. Based on the content and terminology of the media reports, this paper manually classifies the Malaysian media’s coverage of Chinese modernization into three categories: positive, neutral, and negative, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Reporting on Chinese modernization in Malaysia’s major media.
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Based on Table 4, the study draws the following conclusions: by counting and categorizing the attitude tendency of 192 reports through the evaluation category of words that express emotions, 83.9% of the media had a positive attitude towards the reports of Chinese modernization, 10.9% had a neutral attitude, and 5.2% had a negative attitude. That means there were a total of 161 positive reports, 21 neutral reports, and 10 negative reports. Malay-language reports were the least reported, but all tended to be positive; Nanyang Siang Pau, China Press, Sinchew Daily and The Star were the media outlets with the most extensive coverage of Chinese modernization; among all media outlets, China Press and Nanyang Siang Pau have the most positive attitudes towards Chinese modernization, with 40 positive reports in China Press and 43 positive reports in Nanyang Siang Pau, while The Star has the most negative attitudes towards Chinese modernization, with 6 negative reports. It shows that Malaysia affirms Chinese modernization and China’s overall development achievements, but occasionally, there are some neutral and negative reports. The details of the reports are as follows:

Positive reporting and perceptions

In Malaysian media reports, positive portrayals and perceptions of Chinese modernization frequently surface. For instance, an article in the New Straits Times utilizes positive and affirming language to describe China’s path to modernization, such as “China’s determination to press forward to national rejuvenation through a Chinese path to modernization could be an inspiration to other countries when it comes to carving their own destinies” (New Strait Times, 28/10/2022). This expression not only highlights the model’s distinctiveness and efficacy but also communicates an inspirational message, suggesting that China’s development approach might serve as a beacon for other nations. The Star, through its headline “Embark on a new journey, benefit from shared opportunities,” employs the metaphor of a “new journey” to denote a vibrant process of progress and development. The piece details China’s developmental milestones, like the significant GDP growth from 54 trillion yuan to 114 trillion yuan (The Star, 31/10/2022), highlighting the positive image of China’s rapid economic development and social progress. “According to Ouyang Yujing, China has been Malaysia’s largest trading partner for 13 consecutive years and will undoubtedly be Malaysia’s largest trading partner for the 14th consecutive year this year”. (“欧阳玉靖认为, 中国已连续13年成为马来西亚最大的贸易伙伴, 毫无疑问今年将连续14年成为马来西亚最大的贸易伙伴”。) (Sinchew Daily, 3/11/2022) This report focuses on the economic and trade cooperation between China and Malaysia, underlining the influence and role of Chinese modernization in regional economic integration. The Malay-language report even mentions “pemodenan gaya Cina memberi pilihan baharu untuk umat manusia bagi merealisasikan pemodenan” (Chinese modernization provides a new option for humanity to achieve modernization) (Cision PR Newswire, 19/10/2022), highlighting it as a novel developmental model providing fresh perspectives and alternatives for the globe.

A unified narrative that integrates news in English, Chinese, and Malay praises China’s social and economic advancements as well as the possible global effects of its modernization. The reports construct an optimistic discourse by underscoring China’s accomplishments and portraying its development model’s uniqueness and global influence. This narrative presents China as a global leader in development models while also painting a positive picture of its achievements locally in Malaysia. More importantly, such reports reflect the multifaceted understanding and interpretation by Malaysian media of Chinese modernization. Through the depiction of China’s economic growth, social progress, and its collaborative relations with Malaysia and globally, Malaysian media demonstrate a profound insight into the complexities of Chinese modernization. Coverage spans economic, societal, political, and cultural realms, showcasing a thorough observation and analysis of the multifaceted nature of Chinese modernization.

In short, Malaysian media, through positive narrative construction strategies, communicates an endorsement of the process of Chinese modernization. This approach illustrates that media serves not merely as a conduit for information dissemination but as a constructor of meaning, shaping public perception and understanding of Chinese modernization through carefully designed narrative frameworks. By emphasizing China’s achievements in economic development, societal progress, and international cooperation, readers are offered a comprehensive view of the positive strides in China’s modernization journey. This also provides valuable insights and inspiration for media exchanges and cooperation between China and Malaysia.

Neutral reporting and perceptions

Neutral reporting on Chinese modernization in Malaysian media is usually distinguished by an impartial language presentation. According to Fairclough’s model, neutral reporting in the Malaysian media usually presents Chinese modernization through objective language. Such reports tend to provide factual information without being overly dramatic or critical but rather maintain a neutral point of view so that readers can understand the meaning and implications of Chinese modernization from multiple perspectives. In a report by The Star, such as Xi Jinping words being quoted, “From this day forward, the central task of the CPC will be to lead the Chinese people of all ethnic groups in a concerted effort to realize the Second Centenary Goal of building China into a great modern socialist country in all respects and to advance the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation on all fronts through a Chinese path to modernization, Xi said.” (The Star,18/10/2022) The overall content of this report objectively presents the CPC’s official stance and goals in advancing modernization without obvious tendencies or emotional overtones. In another New Strait Times report, it was mentioned that Xi Jinping emphasized the importance of maintaining peace and stability in the Asia-Pacific region and called for the establishment of an in-depth regional partnership of mutual trust, inclusiveness, and mutual benefit (New Strait Times, 30/11/2022). Such reports provide concrete information about China’s role and position in the international arena rather than evaluating or interpreting it. Similarly, there are reports from the Malay Mail that detail the sanctions imposed by the US on Chinese entities and the reasons behind these sanctions, such as China’s balloon program (Malay Mail, 11/2/2023). The report neither criticizes nor defends China, maintaining the neutrality of journalism. These reports tend to present the facts in a simple manner, avoiding obvious bias or emotional tendencies, allowing readers to understand the multiple meanings of Chinese modernization from multiple perspectives.

Through such neutral reporting, Malaysian media showcases a multidimensional perspective on the process of Chinese modernization, neither favoring nor critiquing but objectively showcasing relevant facts and information. This reporting style offers the public an objective viewpoint, aiding them in examining and understanding the path of Chinese modernization and its global role and impact from various angles. By displaying the CPC’s official position, China’s efforts in regional peace, and the international challenges China faces, this type of neutral reporting provides readers with a comprehensive, unfiltered insight into Chinese modernization, underscoring the importance and complexity of understanding Chinese modernization in a globalized context. This objective approach to reporting exemplifies journalistic professionalism and fosters cross-cultural understanding, contributing to building a more inclusive and deeply informed international perspective.

Negative reporting and countering stigmatization

While Malaysian media’s coverage and perception of Chinese modernization are primarily positive and neutral, negative reports occasionally appear, often resulting from misunderstandings, biases, and stigmatization. These negative reports typically originate from opposition media or specific political forces, aiming to discredit Chinese modernization and its relationship with Malaysia. For example, Malay Mail proposes China’s economic slowdown, underscoring decisions that prioritize ideology over economic growth (Malay Mail, 10/3/2023). The New Strait Times reports on the expansion of China’s nuclear arsenal, emphasizing its potential global security threat (New Strait Times, 27/4/2023).

In this context, the media should adopt a more balanced and objective reporting style, avoiding one-sided criticism or stigmatization. Accurate reporting should involve a comprehensive understanding and analysis of facts, offering a fair commentary on various aspects of the events. To illustrate, reporting on military modernization should consider the overall context of regional security and China’s role in it rather than just focusing on the enhancement of military strength. In the economic realm, there should be a balanced portrayal of the diverse impacts and long-term goals of China’s economic policies. Regarding nuclear weapons, the coverage should also address broader issues of international nuclear non-proliferation while describing China’s military capabilities.

Additionally, countering stigmatization involves more than just avoiding negative reporting; it’s about providing a diverse perspective that enables the public to understand and evaluate Chinese modernization from various angles. Through such comprehensive reporting, fact-based rational dialogs can be promoted, helping to eliminate stigmatization based on prejudice and misunderstanding. Overall, Malaysian media’s coverage of Chinese modernization should strive to provide a comprehensive, objective, and diverse perspective, not only aiding in a correct understanding of China but also reflecting the reality of international relations and geopolitical complexity. Such reporting can establish fact-based and understanding dialogs, fostering broader and deeper international exchanges and cooperation.

Thus, Malaysian media reports on Chinese modernization show diverse attitudes, with positive and neutral reports dominating. These reports have constructed a complex discourse on Chinese modernization through language choices, syntactic structures, use of metaphors, and narrative strategies. Through these discursive practices, it is possible to see the Malaysian media’s multidimensional understanding and interpretation of Chinese modernization, as well as the possible ideological and cultural tendencies behind it. These findings provide new perspectives for understanding the concept of Chinese modernization in a cross-cultural context and also highlight the importance of strengthening media exchanges and cooperation between China and Malaysia.

Discussion and conclusion

The study finds that Malaysian media predominantly adopt positive and neutral discourse strategies in reporting Chinese modernization, highlighting its uniqueness and effectiveness. Concurrently, factual reporting provides a platform for a multi-faceted understanding of Chinese modernization. Specific discussions on the three questions proposed earlier in the article are as follows:

RQ1: What discourse strategies have been employed by Malaysian media on the topic of Chinese modernization? Through a blend of quantitative and qualitative analyses, including word frequency and keyword context analyses via AntConc software and a critical discourse analysis informed by Fairclough’s theory, a multifaceted discourse is shown. Malaysian media frequently commend China’s growth and global role, employing metaphors and similes to vividly portray its modernization journey, like describing Chinese modernization as a “vision that bears global influence” (New Strait Times, 28/10/2022) and “new journey” (The Star, 31/10/2022), thus conveying the global influence and dynamic characteristics of Chinese modernization. However, critical discourses also emerge, often influenced by geopolitical dynamics, misunderstandings, or the Western media narrative, indicating a complex media landscape that navigates between admiration, objectivity, and skepticism.

RQ2: What are Malaysian media’s attitudes towards China’s modernization? In terms of attitudinal perceptions of Chinese modernization in Malaysia, the study reveals a complex landscape characterized predominantly by positive and neutral attitudes, with a smaller proportion of negative viewpoints. The positive and neutral stances predominate, reflecting a recognition of China’s development as beneficial for regional collaboration. Nevertheless, critical perspectives rooted in political divergences, misinformation, or the influence of Western media highlight a diverse public discourse. This diversity underscores the significance of nuanced media engagement that transcends mere reporting, fostering a deeper, multifaceted understanding of Chinese modernization.

RQ3: How is the discourse system of Chinese modernization constructed in Malaysian media? In exploring how the discourse system of Chinese modernization is constructed in Malaysia, the study identifies a multifaceted approach characterized by diverse thematic focuses and varied narrative strategies. The Malaysian media’s content encompasses themes such as economic, political, social, military, and cultural aspects, presenting a comprehensive view of Chinese modernization. Narrative strategies range from positive portrayals highlighting China’s achievements and strengths to neutral, fact-based reporting and extend to critical analyses in less frequent negative depictions. This range ensures a rich, multi-dimensional discourse. This complex construction of discourse reflects and underscores the media’s pivotal role in shaping public perception and international discourse on globally significant developments.

The discourse construction of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media, as revealed through this study, showcases a predominantly positive and neutral portrayal underpinned by a nuanced understanding of the global significance and impact of China’s development model. The analysis uncovers the multifaceted narrative strategies employed by Malaysian media, ranging from affirmative and objective to critical, reflecting a complex interplay of cultural factors, political dynamics, and media practices. This discussion integrates the study’s findings with a broader examination of international relations, power dynamics, and the influence of media ownership and editorial styles on reporting.

The analysis reveals that the positive portrayal of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media aligns with China’s strategic use of media to project its soft power globally, echoing Kurlantzick’s (2007) observations on China’s soft power initiatives. Similarly, the nuanced and multifaceted portrayal of Chinese modernization, ranging from positive to critical narratives, can be contextualized within the framework of China’s public diplomacy and soft power exertion in the ASEAN region, as explored by Li and Chitty (2009). This suggests that Malaysian media’s discourse strategies may be influenced not only by domestic perspectives but also by China’s broader international relations strategies.

Conversely, the presence of limited negative discourse unveils the intricate power dynamics at play, echoing Western media’s skepticism towards China’s political model and global ambitions, a theme explored in depth by Callahan (2013). Such critical reports signify the geopolitical contestations between Western-led and China-led narratives of modernization, illustrating Malaysian media’s nuanced engagement with these narratives to navigate between competing geopolitical interests, thus mirroring Malaysia’s foreign policy of neutrality and non-alignment.

Besides, the varied attitudes towards Chinese modernization—ranging from positive to neutral and occasionally negative—underscore the profound impact of cultural factors and Malaysia’s diverse media landscape. Media outlets, each with distinct ownership structures and editorial directions, reflect varying degrees of alignment with governmental policies towards China, further influenced by Malaysia’s multicultural society. This societal complexity, with its web of ethnic, cultural, and historical connections to China, molds a layered portrayal of Chinese modernization, indicative of the nuanced understanding and representation of China’s global influence and its developmental narrative within the Malaysian media sphere.

In conclusion, this study highlights the critical role of media in shaping the discourse of Chinese modernization within the context of Malaysia’s complex socio-political landscape and its implications for Sino-Malaysian relations and international communication. The findings underscore the need for a nuanced understanding of the factors influencing media narratives and the importance of fostering media exchanges and cooperation between China and Malaysia to enhance mutual understanding and address misconceptions.

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations aim to improve the communication effect of Chinese modernization in Malaysia and enhance the international influence of Chinese culture:

Firstly, to delve deeper into the portrayal and perceptions of Chinese modernization within Malaysian media, a more detailed analysis of reports on Chinese modernization in Malaysian outlets should be included. This entails examining linguistic features, narrative styles, angles of reporting, and underlying cultural and political factors. By conducting an in-depth examination, diverse attitudes and perspectives towards Chinese modernization in Malaysian media can be uncovered, shedding light on how these views are shaped against specific backdrops. Moreover, this analysis offers China vital information on improving its modernization reputation within and outside Malaysia. By identifying potential misunderstandings and biases, China can tailor its international communication more effectively, aiming to mitigate negative impacts and enhance the persuasive power of its modernization narrative.

Secondly, to further enhance media exchanges and collaboration between China and Malaysia, it’s crucial to implement strategies that foster understanding and cooperation. This could involve structured exchange programs, frequent dialogs, workshops, and co-producing content reflecting the multifaceted nature of Chinese modernization. Joint media projects might explore the benefits of China-Malaysia cooperation across sectors like economic growth, education, technology, and cultural exchanges. Such initiatives are aimed not just at improving the depth and accuracy of media representations but also at laying a solid foundation for improved bilateral relations, thereby fostering mutual respect and a shared perspective between the two nations.

Thirdly, to effectively counter stigmatization and improve the representation of Chinese modernization in Malaysian media, it is vital to adopt targeted research and develop countermeasures that address misunderstanding, prejudice, and misrepresentation. This involves analyzing stigmatizing discourse, understanding biases, and emphasizing China’s commitment to peace, development, and global cooperation. Developing comprehensive media training programs for journalists and media practitioners from both countries can enhance understanding and reduce misinterpretations of Chinese modernization. Furthermore, engaging with international media outlets can clarify misconceptions and present an objective view of China’s development. Establishing a constructive media dialog between China and Malaysia can facilitate a more nuanced representation of Chinese modernization, contributing to a respectful international discourse.

In all, this study highlights the media’s role in framing Chinese modernization within Malaysia’s socio-political context, affecting Sino-Malaysian relations and broader international dialog. It advocates for enhanced China-Malaysia media exchanges to address misconceptions and deepen mutual understanding. However, the analysis, limited to 192 reports from a one-year period, suggests the need for broader research to fully capture the discourse on Chinese modernization. Future studies should expand the dataset for a comprehensive understanding, aiding in the strategic portrayal of China’s development narrative globally.