Reviews & Analysis

Many neuroscientists are motivated by the hope that their research will ultimately benefit people with neurological and mental disorders. Steven Hyman asks whether neuroscience has progressed to the point that the diagnostic manuals for mental disorders can usefully incorporate its findings.

Different classes of GABAergic interneurons shape the spatiotemporal signalling patterns of neurons in the cerebral and cerebellar cortices. Huang and colleagues review the cellular and molecular mechanisms that specify and modify the development of these inhibitory innervation patterns.

Neurofibrillary tangles, composed of hyperphosphorylated tau protein, are among the defining pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. Trojanowski and colleagues review the current understanding of the physiological functions of tau and the causes and pathological consequences of its abnormal phosphorylation.

The potential importance of spontaneous, non task-related, brain activity is becoming increasingly apparent. Fox and Raichle discuss the measurement, properties and interpretation of spontaneous blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) fluctuations, highlighting what we know about their physiological significance and the future challenges for the field.

New concepts of synaptic plasicity have recently emerged for interneurons, which are essential for information processing. Kullmann and Lamsa review our current knowledge of the various forms of LTP and LTD in hippocampal interneurons.

Newly emerging techniques will revolutionize our understanding of the mammalian brain. Deisseroth and colleagues detail the development and use of microbial opsins as optogenetic tools for the study of neural circuits and discuss the use of these tools as potential future therapies for neurological disorders.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) was developed to treat movement disorders, but translational research has revealed new targets for this procedure. Aziz and colleagues elucidate the neurophysiological and translational principles of DBS and provide a model for its underlying mechanisms.

Tumours rely on blood vessels for survival and growth. Jain and colleagues review the mechanisms by which malignant brain tumours stimulate the formation of new blood vessels, and discuss the latest methods for monitoring and treating brain tumours with anti-VEGF agents.

Synaptic transmission is temporally and spatially tightly regulated to serve the needs of fast information flow in the nervous system. Lisman and colleagues bridge the synaptic cleft and review the sequence of pre- and postsynaptic events of quantal release.

Fibroblast growth factors have emerged as key regulators of almost all aspects of neural development, from induction to axonal pathfinding. Mason provides a comprehensive overview of these diverse roles and identifies the major themes from a wealth of experimental data.

Peelen and Downing review recent evidence for body-selective neural mechanisms in the visual cortex and discuss how body-selective brain regions might relate to action perception and the 'mirror' system, perception of the self and the 'body schema', and understanding the emotions of others.

Uncontrolled aggression and violence have enormous effects on human societies. Nelson and Trainor review and integrate the findings that have shown the complex interactions between genes, biological signals, neural circuits and the environment that influence the development and expression of aggressive behaviour.

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels contribute to mechanosensation in several systems, yet direct channel gating by mechanical stimuli has been difficult to prove. Christensen and Corey consider the criteria that aim to establish direct channel gating and apply these to potential mechanosensory TRP channels.

Sensory stimuli are interpreted in light of their spatial and temporal context, which can sometimes lead to visual illusions. Schwartz, Hsu and Dayan consider the possible functional benefits of contextual biases and discuss computational models that may explain why spatial and temporal context effects are so similar.

The mechanisms underlying the effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) are unclear. Ridding and Rothwell argue that a better understanding of these mechanisms and the conditions for which rTMS is used will reveal whether rTMS offers true therapeutic potential.

Playing a musical instrument involves the precise control of both timing and pitch. Zatorre and colleagues consider the requirements of music perception and production, and discuss the neural mechanisms that mediate interactions between the auditory and motor systems during music performance.

The amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide accumulates in extracellular plaques that are linked to Alzheimer's disease, and recent evidence indicates that Aβ can also accumulate intraneuronally. LaFerla and colleagues review the production and regulation of intracellular Aβ and discuss its potential contribution to neuronal pathology.

Enteric nervous system (ENS) development attracts the interest of developmental biologists and human geneticists alike. Heanue and Pachnis review ENS development, the molecular basis of Hirschprung's disease and the potential for stem cell therapies to treat this condition.

It is widely accepted that adult neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb in the mammalian brain, but whether it is restricted to these areas remains controversial. Gould discusses evidence for and against neocortical neurogenesis in the adult, emphasizing some key methodological issues.

An increasing number of genes have been identified that control the specification and development of projection neuron subtypes in the neocortex. Macklis and colleagues review recent progress in understanding their function and discuss the implications for progenitor plasticity.