Primers

Community-acquired bacterial meningitis (inflammation of the meninges) is most commonly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae or Neisseria meningitidis. Prevention (through vaccination) and early antibiotic treatment are essential to reduce morbidity and mortality of this medical emergency.

Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborne infectious disease with high morbidity and mortality rates, especially in low-income countries. Advances in diagnosis and treatment have been made, but new vaccines and drugs are needed to achieve the goal of the End TB Strategy by 2035.

Mitochondrial diseases are a group of genetic disorders that are characterized by mutations in nuclear or mitochondrial DNA. This Primer discusses the mechanisms underlying the development of mitochondrial diseases, in addition to the diagnosis, prevention and management of these disorders.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common degenerative joint disorder. In this Primer, Pelletier and colleagues provide an update on the progress made in the field of OA epidemiology, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, prevention, disease management and quality of life.

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disorder that is characterized by low bone mass and micro-architectural deterioration of bone tissue. In this Primer, Eastell et al. discuss the epidemiology and pathophysiology of postmenopausal osteoporosis and consider its diagnosis, prevention and treatment and its effect on quality of life.

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is the most common form of glaucoma and is characterized by deformation of the optic nerve head and vision loss. This Primer by Weinreb et al. discusses the risk factors, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of POAG.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by depressed mood, diminished interests and impaired cognitive function, among other symptoms. This Primer by Otte et al. discusses the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of MDD.

Otitis media (OM) or middle ear inflammation is a spectrum of diseases. In this Primer, Schilder et al. provide an overview of OM epidemiology, its underlying pathophysiology, diagnosis, impact on children and their families and preventive and treatment options, as well as an outlook on the future.

Infective endocarditis (IE) is caused by damage to the endocardium of the heart followed by microbial, usually bacterial, colonization. IE is a disease that affects multiple systems and can be fatal if left untreated, and antimicrobial prophylaxis strategies for IE remain controversial.

Ovarian cancer is a global health problem that is generally diagnosed at a late stage and has no effective screening strategy. This Primer by Matulonis et al. discusses the risk factors, genetics, diagnosis and management of ovarian cancer.

Infection with any one of the four dengue virus serotypes can cause disease that ranges from a mild febrile illness through to haemorrhagic fever and shock. This Primer outlines the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of dengue infection.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is characterized by hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction and polycystic ovarian morphology. Here, Azziz et al. describe the current state of knowledge regarding the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, management and future investigational directions of the disorder.

α1-Antitrypsin deficiency (A1ATD) is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in SERPINA1, leading to liver and lung disease. In this Primer by Greene et al., the classification of A1ATD is discussed, in addition to the mechanisms, diagnosis and management of this disease.

Aortic dissection is a medical emergency that occurs when the layers of the aortic wall are forced apart by bleeding, creating a false route of blood flow. Important risk factors for aortic dissection include hypertension and connective tissue disorders.

Measles is an infectious disease caused by the measles virus. In this Primer, Rota et al. cover the pathophysiology and management options, with a focus on the strategies to eliminate endemic transmission of the measles virus by achieving a high level of vaccination coverage

Sjögren syndrome (SjS) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the exocrine glands, resulting in the development of sicca symptoms and systemic disease. In this Primer, the mechanisms as well as the diagnosis and management of SjS are described.

Sepsis is the dysregulated systemic inflammatory and immune response to infection that produces organ injury. Septic shock is characterized by persistent hypotension that substantially increases the risk of death. In this Primer, the authors outline the controversies in sepsis and septic shock, including the complex mechanistic factors and management of critically ill patients.

Uterine fibroids are benign neoplasms of the uterus and are a major source of morbidity in women of reproductive age. In this Primer, Stewart et al. discuss the epidemiology, pathophysiology and management of uterine fibroids, including both surgical and non-surgical therapies.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease that can affect many organs, including the skin, joints, the central nervous system and the kidneys. Here, Kaul et al. highlight the heterogeneity of the disease, the management approaches and provide an outlook on the future research directions.

Patients with cirrhosis can develop acute-on-chronic liver failure, a syndrome characterized by acute decompensation, organ failure and high short-term mortality. Arroyo et al. discuss the mechanisms, diagnosis and management of this evolving concept in the field of liver disease.