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Live whole-organism vaccines against Plasmodium falciparum malaria and cutaneous leishmaniasis remain the most uniformly effective vaccines against human parasitic diseases. These vaccines are discussed in terms of the requirement for persisting antigen to generate and maintain a protective response.
This Commentary discusses how treatment with antibiotics in infancy shapes host immunity and influences susceptibility later in life to diseases mediated by the immune system.
Emerging technologies are broadening our understanding of the human immune system, but capitalizing on their application will likely require philosophical and practical changes to the way research is done.