Abstract
The early evolution of a supernova (SN) can reveal information about the environment and the progenitor star. When a star explodes in vacuum, the first photons to escape from its surface appear as a brief, hours-long shock-breakout flare1,2, followed by a cooling phase of emission. However, for stars exploding within a distribution of dense, optically thick circumstellar material (CSM), the first photons escape from the material beyond the stellar edge and the duration of the initial flare can extend to several days, during which the escaping emission indicates photospheric heating3. Early serendipitous observations2,4 that lacked ultraviolet (UV) data were unable to determine whether the early emission is heating or cooling and hence the nature of the early explosion event. Here we report UV spectra of the nearby SN 2023ixf in the galaxy Messier 101 (M101). Using the UV data as well as a comprehensive set of further multiwavelength observations, we temporally resolve the emergence of the explosion shock from a thick medium heated by the SN emission. We derive a reliable bolometric light curve that indicates that the shock breaks out from a dense layer with a radius substantially larger than typical supergiants.
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Data availability
Photometry and spectra used in this study will be made available from WISeREP64 (http://wiserep.weizmann.ac.il/). A log of the available spectra can be found in the Supplementary information. Other source data files are available in the Supplementary information and Excel sheets. OPTICON observations were obtained under programme ID OPT/2023A/001, PI E. Zimmerman.
Code availability
Relevant software sources and web locations have been provided in the text and are publicly available. All scripts used to conduct the analyses presented in this paper are available from the corresponding author on request.
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Acknowledgements
We thank B. Katz and E. Waxman for their advice on the physical interpretation of SN 2023ixf. This work is based on observations obtained with HST as part of proposal GO-17205 (PI E. Zimmerman). Based in part on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin 48-inch telescope and the 60-inch telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) project. The ZTF is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) under grant AST-2034437 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, Trinity College Dublin, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, IN2P3, University of Warwick, Ruhr University Bochum and Northwestern University. Operations are conducted by COO, IPAC and UW. The SED Machine is based on work supported by the NSF under grant 1106171. Based in part on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT), owned in collaboration by the University of Turku and Aarhus University and operated jointly by Aarhus University, the University of Turku and the University of Oslo (representing Denmark, Finland and Norway, respectively), the University of Iceland and Stockholm University, at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. These data were obtained with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) under a joint agreement with the University of Copenhagen and NOT. Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA); the Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. Keck Foundation. This work includes observations obtained at the Liverpool Telescope, which is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. A major upgrade of the Kast spectrograph on the Shane 3-m telescope at Lick Observatory, led by B. Holden, was made possible through generous gifts from the Heising-Simons Foundation, William and Marina Kast and the University of California Observatories. Research at Lick Observatory is partially supported by a generous gift from Google. This work benefited from the OPTICON telescope access programme (https://www.astro-opticon.org/index.html), financed from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement 101004719. Based in part on observations made with the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) operated on the island of La Palma by the Fundación Galileo Galilei of the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. This research used data obtained with the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI). DESI construction and operations is managed by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. This material is based upon work supported by the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High-Energy Physics, under contract no. DE–AC02–05CH11231, and by the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, a DOE Office of Science User Facility under the same contract. Additional support for DESI was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), Division of Astronomical Sciences under contract no. AST-0950945 to the NSF’s National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory; the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom; the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation; the Heising-Simons Foundation; the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA); the National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico (CONACYT); the Ministry of Science and Innovation of Spain (MICINN), and by the DESI Member Institutions: www.desi.lbl.gov/collaborating-institutions. The DESI collaboration is honoured to be permitted to conduct scientific research on Iolkam Du’ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O’odham Nation. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the US National Science Foundation, the US Department of Energy, or any of the listed funding agencies. We made use of IRAF, which is distributed by the NSF NOIR Lab. The Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, through both the Data-Driven Investigator Program and a dedicated grant, provided critical funding for SkyPortal. A.V.F.’s supernova group at University of California, Berkeley has been supported by S. Nelson, G. and C. Bengier, C. and S. Winslow, S. Robertson, B. and K. Wood, the Christopher R. Redlich Fund and numerous other donors. T.S. acknowledges support from the Comunidad de Madrid (2022-T1/TIC-24117).
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Contributions
E.A.Z. is the PI of the HST proposal, triggered the HST observations, reduced the HST spectra, conducted follow-up observations, conducted spectroscopic and physical analysis and wrote the manuscript. I.I. helped develop the manuscript, contributed to follow-up design and execution, conducted photometric analysis and physical analysis, reduced the saturated Swift data and contributed to the physical interpretation of the data. P.C. contributed to follow-up design and execution, reduced photometry and reduced the Swift spectra. A.G.-Y. leads the Weizmann research group, provided mentorship and edited the manuscript. S.Sc. conducted spectroscopic analysis and reduced the XRT data. D.A.P. classified the supernova and provided Liverpool Telescope data. J.S. helped develop the manuscript, provided the NOT data and is a ZTF builder. A.V.F. leads the University of California, Berkeley research group, is PI of the Lick programme and thoroughly edited the manuscript. T.S. modelled the SN spectra and advised on spectral analysis. O.Y. helped develop the manuscript and created several figures. S.Sh. provided microtelluric models for the HARPS spectra and advised on statistical tests. R.J.B. contributed to follow-up design and execution and helped develop the manuscript. E.O.O. advised on the physical interpretation and helped develop the manuscript. A.D.C. conducted an analysis of the interstellar-medium absorption lines. T.G.B. obtained and reduced all of the Lick data. Y.Y. and S.S.V. helped develop the manuscript. S.B.A. contributed to follow-up design and execution. M.A. is part of the ZTF calibration team. A.B. advised on the measurement of Na extinction. J.S.B. and K.Z. obtained data for this study. P.J.B. and M.R. consulted on Swift data reduction and helped develop the manuscript. M.M.K. and K.D. provided infrared data from Gattini and IRTF. G.D., J.H.T. and K.M.S. obtained the INT spectrum. C.Fra. advised on the physical interpretation, and helped develop the manuscript. C.Fre. requested and shared the KCWI data. A.H. and I.S. advised on radio data. K.H. and J.W. reduced Liverpool Telescope data. J.P.J. obtained the NOT/FIES spectra. S.R.K. is the ZTF PI and contributed Keck data. D.K., J.M. and T.W. advised on the physical interpretation and models. J.D.N. obtained and reduced the KCWI data. C.M., M.M., N.Z.P. and R.C.M. are part of the KCRM commissioning team and were involved in obtaining the KCWI data. P.E.N. provided the DESI data and contributed to follow-up design and execution. L.Y. and A.A.M. helped develop the manuscript and are co-authors of HST proposal GO-17205. R.S.P. provided photometry from the Post Observatory, Mayhill, NM. Y.Q. and R.D.S. provided and reduced Keck spectroscopic data. A.R. reduced the DESI spectra. R.R. and B.R. are ZTF builders. M.S. is a co-author of HST proposal GO-17205. A.W. is part of the ZTF data-system team. K.D. is a NASA Einstein Fellow.
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Extended data figures and tables
Extended Data Fig. 1 Location of SN 2023ixf within the M101 galaxy.
a, A composite ugi image taken by the Liverpool Telescope showing the location of SN 2023ixf within the M101 galaxy. The SN is clearly seen to be very blue (the most blue object within the inset rectangle). It is located within a spiral arm at the outskirts of the galaxy. b, The Liverpool Telescope g-band image showing the area marked in the composite image. Nearby star-forming regions are clearly seen. c, Hα image of the direct vicinity of SN 2023ixf, as marked in the Liverpool Telescope g-band image, constructed from observations with the integral field unit KCWI. The SN explosion site is embedded in a region of continuing star formation, including diffusely distributed lower-level star-formation activity and islands of enhanced star formation.
Extended Data Fig. 2 UV–optical light curves of SN 2023ixf.
Point spread function or aperture photometry is shown with star symbols, UVOT streak photometry is indicated using a plus symbol and synthetic photometry from HST is indicated using squares. The marker colours correspond to the band filter indicated on the left side of the figure. The error bars are of 1σ standard deviation.
Extended Data Fig. 3 Bolometric light curve of SN 2023ixf.
The black stars represent the reconstructed bolometric light curves using a blackbody extrapolation. The error bars are of 1σ standard deviation. The magenta points are the late-time bolometric luminosity reconstructed using the bolometric correction of SN 2017ahn to the uBgriz late-time pseudo bolometric light curve. The dashed red line indicates the energy deposition from the best-fit 56Ni mass (labelled in the legend; see Methods section ‘Photometry’) to the t > 90-day luminosity. Error bars are 1σ standard deviations.
Extended Data Fig. 4 The early-time spectral sequence of SN 2023ixf.
A plethora of narrow flash-ionization lines is seen in the earliest spectra, including the H Balmer series, H Paschen series, several series of He II (n → 3, 4, 5, 6), He I, C IV, N IV, N III and C III. Lower-ionization species (C III, N III, He I) weaken until they disappear in the optical spectra by day 2.
Extended Data Fig. 5 The early spectral sequence of SN 2023ixf after t = 6 days and until broad features appear.
All narrow lines except narrow Hα P Cygni disappear by day 6 in the optical. The narrow P Cygni no longer appears by approximately day 16.
Extended Data Fig. 6 Early photospheric UV spectra of SN 2023ixf and other Type II SNe.
The early-time UV spectra of SN 2022wsp (ref. 37), SN 2021yja (ref. 38), SN 2022acko (ref. 39), SN 1999em (ref. 40) and SN 2005ay (ref. 41) are presented. All spectra were taken by HST except for the SN 2005ay spectrum obtained with GALEX. The prominent Mg II λ2798 line is marked in yellow. Its double-peaked shape is similar to that of SN 2022wsp, indicating an Fe II transition37. The broad absorption across 1,800–2,100 Å is marked as well and arises from a mix of metals. The features in SN 2023ixf are similar to those of SN 2022wsp, SN 2021yja and SN 2022acko, yet shifted because of different velocity regimes. The uniformity of these features suggests that they originate from the natal chemical composition of the exploding star. However, a strong emission feature at roughly 1,910 Å appears in the spectra of SN 1999em and SN 2005ay, suggesting that some diversity in SN II UV photospheric features exists as well.
Extended Data Fig. 7 Photospheric-phase spectra of SN 2023ixf.
The photospheric development of the SN is typical of Type II-P SNe. A zoom-in of the Hα P Cygni profile is presented in the right panel, with 8,000 km s−1 Hα marked. We adopt this value as the early-time ejecta velocity.
Extended Data Fig. 8 X-ray light curve of SN 2023ixf from XRT.
The absorbed X-ray luminosity from the XRT 0.3–10-keV band is presented. Each point represents a binned measurement, with an error bar representing the measurement period. The relatively constant X-ray luminosity suggests an average CSM density profile ρ ∝ r−2. The error bars show a 1σ standard deviation.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Narrow-line-velocity evolution of SN 2023ixf.
Feature velocities and appearance times for Hα, He II λ4686, N IV λ1718 and C III λ2297 are presented. The dashed lines show the expected radiative acceleration of stationary matter at τ < 1, calculated from the cumulative radiated energy at different radii. We indicate the region excluded by ejecta starting at Rbo/2 = 0.8 × 1014 cm with a velocity of 109 cm s−1, estimated from the blue edge of the photospheric spectrum. Previous approximate measurements19 are added as well. The error bars show a 1σ standard deviation.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
This file contains the Supplementary Methods, Supplementary Figs. 1–4 and Supplementary Tables 1–4.
Supplementary Data (Source Data Table 1)
This file contains a table showing our results of the blackbody fits
Supplementary Data (Source Data Table 2)
This file contains a log of our HST observations
Supplementary Data (Source Data Table 3)
This file contains a log of all the spectra taken for this study
Supplementary Data (Source Data Table 4)
This file contains the results of all the narrow flux measurements we measured for this study
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Zimmerman, E.A., Irani, I., Chen, P. et al. The complex circumstellar environment of supernova 2023ixf. Nature 627, 759–762 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07116-6
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07116-6
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