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Extratropical storms contribute to precipitation, wind and temperature extremes. A synthesis of the influences of a changing climate on storm tracks reveals competing effects on meridional temperature gradients, which make projections difficult.
Two large zones through which seismic waves travel unusually slowly are found at the base of Earth's mantle. These zones are thermally and chemically distinct from the surrounding mantle and may be a source for mantle plumes.
The formation of Earth's continents is unclear. A review of the geochemical composition of crust formed above subduction zones across the globe suggests that subduction and relamination of buoyant magmatic rocks play an important role.
Lakes are sources of the greenhouse gas methane. A synthesis of measurements of methane emissions reveals that lakes and ponds above 50 °N emit 16.5 Tg methane annually, and emissions may increase by 20 to 50% with longer ice-free seasons.