Letters in 2008

Polar temperatures have been warming significantly over the past few decades. A comparison between observational temperature records and model simulations shows that temperature changes in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions can be attributed to human activity.

The 2004 Sumatra earthquake was one of the largest events to occur in a subduction zone in the past 50 years. Seismic reflection data for this subduction zone reveal thrust faults cutting across the entire oceanic crust. This observation, coupled with the hypocentres of aftershocks, suggests that the megathrust—the interface between the Indo-Australian plate and the Sunda plate—currently lies in the oceanic mantle.

The transfer of organic carbon from the terrestrial biosphere to the oceans via erosion and riverine transport constitutes an important component of the global carbon cycle. Measurements of particulate organic carbon load and composition in the LiWu river, Taiwan, during cyclone-triggered floods suggest that tropical cyclones may facilitate the delivery of non-fossil particulate organic carbon to the ocean and its subsequent burial.

Greigite crystals of bacterial origin are widespread in modern sedimentary environments, but their occurrence in the fossil record remains controversial. Grains from Romanian Pliocene-aged sediments have now been identified as bacterial in origin, tentatively placing them among the oldest known greigite magnetofossils.

The water table interacts with soil organic carbon in northern peatlands that have historically functioned as a carbon sink. Simulations with a coupled physical–biogeochemical soil model with continuously updated peat depths show that the feedback between the water table and peat depth increases the sensitivity of peat decomposition to temperature, and intensifies the loss of soil organic carbon in a changing climate.

Current understanding of weather, climate and global atmospheric circulation on Mars is incomplete, in particular at altitudes above about 30 km. High-resolution observations from the Mars Climate Sounder instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter show an intense warming of the middle atmosphere over the south polar region in winter, which suggests a much more vigorous equator-to-pole circulation than expected.

A three-dimensional evaluation of earthquake hypocentres beneath the Kanto basin in Japan reveals the presence of a distinct, 25-km-thick and 100-km-wide body. Its fast seismic velocity and the presence of a double seismic zone suggest that it is a fragment of the Pacific slab, rather than an extension of the Philippine Sea slab. This implies that the penetration of the Philippine Sea slab is much shallower beneath the Kanto basin than was previously thought.

Climate change will have a significant impact on the hydrologic cycle, creating changes in freshwater resources, land cover and land–atmosphere feedbacks. Simulations using a groundwater flow model with integrated overland flow and land-surface model processes show that groundwater depth, which results from lateral water flow at the surface and subsurface, determines the relative susceptibility of regions to changes in temperature and precipitation.

To understand the evolution of the inner core it is important to constrain the structure of its innermost part. Analysis of two types of seismic waves that traverse the inner core reveals seismic anisotropy of the innermost region and is consistent with the slowest direction of anisotropy being tilted away from the equatorial plane.

Observations over past decades show a sudden switch of Jakobshavn Isbræ—a large outlet glacier feeding a deep-ocean fjord on Greenland’s west coast—from slow thickening to rapid thinning in 1997. This switch is associated with a doubling in glacier velocity. Hydrographic data show a concurrent sudden increase in subsurface ocean temperatures along the entire west coast of Greenland, suggesting that the changes in Jakobshavn Isbræ were triggered by the arrival of relatively warm water originating from the Irminger Sea.

Iron has the ability to adopt different electronic configurations, and transitions in its spin state in the lower mantle can significantly influence mantle properties and dynamics. Experimental results for two lower-mantle perovskite compositions show that the intermediate spin state of iron is stable throughout the bulk of the lower mantle.

The Earth’s lowermost mantle displays an important mineralogical transition from perovskite to post-perovskite but the spin state of iron in these phases remains poorly known. Experimental results suggest that iron occurs in the intermediate spin state in both of these phases, which implies that changes in physical properties of the lower mantle must be governed by factors other than spin transitions in iron.

Chemical and isotopic variations in crushed material along the Chelungpu fault in Taiwan are suggestive of interactions at high temperatures with coseismically generated aqueous fluids. High fluid pressures along the fault zone during the magnitude 7.6 Chi-Chi earthquake in 1999 could have reduced friction and fault strength.

Swarms of non-volcanic tremor in southeastern Japan are associated with slow slip events and tend to occur with a periodicity of 12 or 24 h. This periodicity can be reproduced by a combination of stresses due to Earth tides and transient stress changes caused by slow slip events. Non-volcanic tremors may therefore be useful for understanding stress relaxation at the subduction-zone interface.

Variability in northwest African humidity has been documented for the Holocene period, but less is known about the development of the hydrological balance during the Pleistocene period. Sedimentary records and numerical simulations for the past 120,000 years show abrupt millennial-scale changes in humidity, which may be related to changes in the strength of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation.

Determining stratospheric ozone levels from before instrumental records began has proved difficult. Measurements of the chemical composition of plant spore walls suggest that ultraviolet-B-absorbing compounds have the potential to act as a proxy for past changes in ultraviolet-B radiation and stratospheric ozone.

Despite important biological and biogeochemical consequences of extensive ocean anoxic events, their identification is controversial. The marine isotope geochemistry of molybdenum can help quantify the past oxygenation state of the ocean if the riverine input of Mo isotopes is known. Analysis of a set of rivers that account for 28% of global river runoff suggests more variable Mo isotopic ratios in rivers that are also isotopically enriched in the heavy isotopes, suggesting near-total anoxia in the Proterozoic ocean and during Mesozoic ocean anoxic events.

Dissolved organic matter and nutrients from high-latitude coastal watersheds stimulate microbial activity and primary productivity in near-shore ecosystems. A survey of southeast Alaskan watersheds suggests that the extent of glacial coverage may control the release of these nutrients to rivers and ultimately the oceans.

Dissolved organic matter in the ocean constitutes one of the largest pools of reduced carbon on the Earth’s surface. An analysis of observations from the Pacific Ocean shows that as organic matter is oxidized biologically, fluorescent dissolved organic matter is produced in situ in the ocean interior and is resistant to biological degradation on centennial to millennial timescales.

Organic-rich sedimentary units called sapropels have formed repeatedly in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, but the mechanisms leading to the formation of these shale beds are still under debate. The analysis of a suite of sediment cores covering the Eastern Mediterranean basin reveals that across the entire basin preservation of sapropel S1 was different in characteristics above and below 1,800 m depth, which is a result of different redox conditions.