Abstract
In its 16 years of scientific measurements, the Spitzer Space Telescope performed ground-breaking and key infrared measurements of Solar System objects near and far. Targets ranged from the smallest planetesimals to the giant planets; Spitzer helped us to reshape our understanding of these objects while also laying the groundwork for future infrared space-based observations like those to be undertaken by the James Webb Space Telescope in the 2020s. In this Review Article, we describe how Spitzer advanced our knowledge of Solar System formation and evolution through observations of small outer Solar System planetesimals—that is, comets, centaurs and Kuiper belt objects (KBOs). Relics from the early formation era of our Solar System, these objects hold important information about the processes that created them.We group Spitzer’s key contributions into three broad classes: characterization of new Solar System objects (comets D/ISON 2012 S1, C/2016 R2 and 1I/‘Oumuamua); large population surveys of known objects (comets, centaurs and KBOs); and compositional studies through spectral measurements of body surfaces and emitted materials.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$29.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
$119.00 per year
only $9.92 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Werner, M. W. et al. The Spitzer Space Telescope Mission. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 1–9 (2004).
Gehrz, R. D. et al. The NASA Spitzer Space Telescope. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 011302 (2007).
Werner, M. & Eisenhardt, P. in More Things in the Heavens: How Infrared Astronomy Is Expanding Our View of the Universe (ed. Yao, J. & Werneck, A.) Ch. 1 (Princeton Univ. Press, 2019).
Fulton, B. J. et al. The California-Kepler Survey. III. A gap in the radius distribution of small planets. Astron. J. 154, 109 (2017).
DeMeo, F. E. & Carry, B. Solar System evolution from compositional mapping of the asteroid belt. Nature 505, 629–634 (2014).
Cruikshank, D. P. Solar System observations with Spitzer Space Telescope: preliminary results. Adv. Space Res. 36, 1070–1073 (2005).
Fernandez, Y. R. et al. Proc. IAU Symp. 229: Asteroids Comets Meteors (eds Lazzaro, D. et al.) 121–131 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
Gehrz, R. D. et al. Infrared observations of comets with the Spitzer Space Telescope. Adv. Space Res. 38, 2031–2038 (2006).
Werner, M. et al. First fruits of the Spitzer Space Telescope: galactic and Solar System studies. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 44, 269–321 (2006).
Trilling, D. E. et al. Spitzer’s Solar System studies of asteroids, planets and the zodiacal cloud. Nat. Astron. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-01221-y (2020).
Lisse, C. M. et al. The nucleus of comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2). Icarus 140, 189–204 (1999).
Harris, A. A thermal model for near-Earth asteroids. Icarus 131, 291–301 (1998).
Fernandez, Y. R. et al. Thermal properties, sizes, and size distribution of Jupiter-family cometary nuclei. Icarus 226, 1138–1170 (2013).
Kelley, M. S. P. et al. The persistent activity of Jupiter-family comets at 3–7 AU. Icarus 225, 475–494 (2013).
Lamy, P. L., Toth, I., Fernandez, Y. R. & Weaver, H. A. in Comets II (eds Festou, M. C. et al.) 223–264 (Univ. Arizona Press, 2004).
Meech, K. J. et al. Comet nucleus size distributions from HST and Keck telescopes. Icarus 170, 463–491 (2004).
Singer, K. N. et al. Impact craters on Pluto and Charon indicate a deficit of small Kuiper belt objects. Science 363, 955–959 (2019).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Comets sourced by KBOs — comparison of SFDs derived from Spitzer/Wise JFC imaging and Pluto and Charon KBO cratering rates. In 50th Lunar Planetary Science Conf. 50, 2132 (abstr.) (2019).
Hsieh, H. H., Jewitt, D. & Fernandez, Y. R. The strange case of 133P/Elst–Pizarro: a comet among the asteroids. Astron. J. 127, 2997–3017 (2004).
Hsieh, H. H., Jewitt, D. & Fernandez, Y. R. Albedos of main-belt comets 133P/Elst–Pizarro and 176P/LINEAR. Astrophys. J. Lett. 694, L111–L114 (2009).
Hsieh, H. H. & Jewitt, D. A population of comets in the main asteroid belt. Science 312, 561–563 (2006).
Jewitt, D. The active asteroids. Astron. J. 143, 66 (2012).
Fazio, G. G. et al. The Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) for the Spitzer Space Telescope. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 10–17 (2004).
Mommert, M. et al. The discovery of cometary activity in near-Earth asteroid (3552) Don Quixote. Astrophys J. 781, 25 (2014).
Mommert, M. et al. Recurrent cometary activity in near-Earth object (3552) Don Quixote. Planet. Sci. J. 1, 12 (2020).
Fernandez, Y. R. et al. Analysis of POSS images of comet–asteroid transition object 107P/1949 W1 (Wilson–Harrington). Icarus 128, 114–126 (1997).
Houck, J. R. et al. The Infrared Spectrograph (IRS) on the Spitzer Space Telescope. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 18–24 (2004).
Kelley, M. S. et al. A Spitzer study of comets 2P/Encke, 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, and C/2001 HT50 (LINEAR-NEAT). Astrophys. J. 651, 1256–1271 (2006).
Woodward, C. E., Kelley, M. S., Bockelée-Morvan, D. & Gehrz, R. D. Water in comet C/2003 K4 (LINEAR) with Spitzer. Astrophys. J. 671, 1065–1074 (2007).
Woodward, C. E. et al. Dust in comet C/2007 N3 (Lulin). Astron. J. 141, 181 (2011).
Crovisier, J. et al. The spectrum of comet Hale–Bopp (C/1995 O1) observed with the infrared space observatory at 2.9 astronomical units from the Sun. Science 275, 1904–1907 (1997).
Wooden, D. H. et al. Silicate mineralogy of the dust in the inner coma of comet C/1995 01 (Hale–Bopp) pre- and postperihelion. Astrophys. J. 517, 1034–1058 (1999).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Spitzer spectral observations of the deep impact ejecta. Science 313, 635–640 (2006).
Lisse, C. M., Kraemer, K. E., Nuth, J. A., Li, A. & Joswiak, D. Comparison of the composition of the Tempel 1 ejecta to the dust in comet C/Hale Bopp 1995 O1 and YSO HD 100546. Icarus 191, 223–240 (2007).
Reach, W. T., Vaubaillon, J., Kelley, M. S., Lisse, C. M. & Sykes, M. V. Distribution and properties of fragments and debris from the split comet 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 3 as revealed by Spitzer Space Telescope. Icarus 203, 571–588 (2009).
Sitko, M. L. et al. Infrared spectroscopy of comet 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 3 using the Spitzer Space Telescope. Astron. J. 142, 80 (2011).
Reach, W. T., Vaubaillon, J., Lisse, C. M., Holloway, M. & Rho, J. Explosion of comet 17P/Holmes as revealed by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Icarus 208, 276–292 (2010).
Levasseur-Regourd, A.-C. et al. Cometary dust. Space Sci. Rev. 214, 64 (2018).
Mannel, T. et al. Dust of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko collected by Rosetta/MIDAS: classification and extension to the nanometer scale. Astron. Astrophys. 630, A26 (2019).
Lisse, C. M., Beichman, C. A., Bryden, G. & Wyatt, M. C. On the nature of the dust in the debris disk around HD 69830. Astrophys. J. 658, 584–592 (2007).
Chen, C. H., Su, K. & Xi, S. Spitzer’s debris disk legacy from main-sequence stars to white dwarfs. Nat. Astron. 4, 328–338 (2020).
Lewis, J. S. & Prinn, R. G. Kinetic inhibition of CO and N2 reduction in the solar nebula. Astrophys. J. 238, 357–364 (1980).
Westphal, A. J. et al. The future of Stardust science. Meteor. Planet. Sci. 52, 1859–1898 (2017).
Kelley, M. S. P. et al. Mid-infrared spectra of comet nuclei. Icarus 284, 344–358 (2017).
Wooden, D. H., Ishii, H. A. & Zolensky, M. E. Cometary dust: the diversity of primitive refractory grains. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 375, 20160260 (2017).
Harker, D. E., Woodward, C. E., Kelley, M. S. P. & Wooden, D. H. Hyperactivity and dust composition of comet 103P/Hartley 2 during the EPOXI encounter. Astron. J. 155, 199 (2018).
Bardyn, A. et al. Carbon-rich dust in comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko measured by COSIMA/Rosetta. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 469, S712–S722 (2017).
Bergin, E. A., Blake, G. A., Ciesla, F., Hirschmann, M. M. & Li, J. Tracing the ingredients for a habitable earth from interstellar space through planet formation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 8965–8970 (2015).
Reach, W. T., Kelley, M. S. & Vaubaillon, J. Survey of cometary CO2, CO, and particulate emissions using the Spitzer Space Telescope. Icarus 226, 777–797 (2013).
A’Hearn, M. F., Millis, R. C., Schleicher, D. O., Osip, D. J. & Birch, P. V. The ensemble properties of comets: results from narrowband photometry of 85 comets, 1976–1992. Icarus 118, 223–270 (1995).
A’Hearn, M. F. et al. Deep Impact: excavating comet Tempel 1. Science 310, 258–264 (2005).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Rotationally resolved 8–35 micron Spitzer Space Telescope observations of the nucleus of comet 9P/Tempel 1. Astrophys. J. Lett. 625, L139–L142 (2005).
Kelley, M. S. P., Reach, W. T. & Lien, D. J. The dust trail of comet 67P/Churyumov Gerasimenko. Icarus 193, 572–587 (2008).
Kelley, M. S. P. et al. Spitzer observations of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko at 5.5–4.3 AU from the Sun. Astron. J. 137, 4633–4642 (2009).
Agarwal, J. et al. The dust trail of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko between 2004 and 2006. Icarus 207, 992–1012 (2010).
Lamy, P. L. et al. Hubble Space Telescope observations of the nucleus of comet 8P/Tuttle. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 40, 393 (2008).
Harmon, J. K., Nolan, M. C., Giorgini, J. D. & Howell, E. S. Radar observations of 8P/Tuttle: a contact-binary comet. Icarus 207, 499–502 (2010).
Groussin, O. et al. Spitzer Space Telescope observations of bilobate comet 8P/Tuttle. Astron. Astrophys. 632, A104 (2019).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Spitzer Space Telescope observations of the nucleus of comet 103P/Hartley 2. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 121, 968 (2009).
A’Hearn, M. F. et al. EPOXI at comet Hartley 2. Science 332, 1396–1400 (2011).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Comet C/2012 S1 (Ison). Cent. Bur. Electron. Tel. 3598, 2 (2013).
Meech, K. J. et al. Outgassing behavior of C/2012 S1 (ISON) from 2011 September to 2013 June. Astrophys. J. Lett. 776, L20 (2013).
Biver, N. et al. The extraordinary composition of the blue comet C/2016 R2 (PanSTARRS). Astron. Astrophys. 619, A127 (2018).
Cochran, A. L. & McKay, A. J. Strong CO+ and N2+ emission in comet C/2016 R2 (Pan-STARRS). Astrophys. J. Lett. 854, L10 (2018).
Wierzchos, K. & Womack, M. C/2016 R2 (PANSTARRS): a comet rich in CO and depleted in HCN. Astron. J. 156, 34 (2018).
McKay, A. J. et al. The peculiar volatile composition of CO-dominated comet C/2016 R2 (PanSTARRS). Astron. J. 158, 128 (2019).
Opitom, C., Hutsemékers, D., Jehin, E. & Rousselot, P. High resolution optical spectroscopy of the N2-rich comet C/2016 R2 (PanSTARRS). Astron. Astrophys. 624, A64 (2019).
Williams, G. V. MPEC 2017-U181: comet C/2017 U1 (2017).
Trilling, D. et al. Spitzer observations of interstellar object 1I/‘Oumuamua. Astron J. 156, 261 (2018).
Davies, J. K., Green, S. F., Stewart, B. C., Meadows, A. J. & Aumann, H. H. The IRAS fast-moving object search. Nature 309, 315–319 (1984).
Sykes, M. V., Lebofsky, L. A., Hunten, D. M. & Low, F. The discovery of dust trails in the orbits of periodic comets. Science 232, 1115–1117 (1986).
Sykes, M. V. & Walker, R. Cometary dust trails I. Survey. Icarus 95, 180–210 (1992).
Nesvorný, D. et al. Cometary origin of the zodiacal cloud and carbonaceous micrometeorites. Implications for hot debris disks. Astrophys. J. 713, 816–836 (2010).
Reach, W. T., Kelley, M. S. & Sykes, M. V. A survey of debris trails from short-period comets. Icarus 191, 298–322 (2007).
Stansberry, J. et al. Spitzer observations of the dust coma and nucleus of 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 463–468 (2004).
Nesvorný, D. et al. Candidates for asteroid dust trails. Astron. J. 132, 582–595 (2006).
Reach, W. T., Vaubaillon, J., Lisse, C. M., Holloway, M. & Rho, J. Explosion of comet 17P/Holmes as revealed by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Icarus 208, 276–292 (2010).
Vaubaillon, J. & Reach, W. T. Spitzer Space Telescope observations and the particle size distribution of comet 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 3. Astron. J. 139, 1491–1498 (2010).
Arendt, R. G. DIRBE comet trails. Astrophys. J. 148, 135 (2014).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Infrared observations of comets by COBE. Astrophys. J. 496, 971–991 (1998).
Kresak, L. & Kresakova, M. in Symp. Diversity and Similarity of Comets ESA SP-278, 739–744 (ESA, 1987).
Rabinowitz, D. & Scotti, J. Periodic comet Faye (1991n). IAU Circ. 5366, 3 (1991).
Ishiguro, M. et al. First detection of an optical dust trail along the orbit of 22P/Kopff. Astrophys. J. 572, L117–L120 (2002).
Ishiguro, M. et al. Discovery of the dust trail of the Stardust comet sample return mission target: 81P/Wild 2. Astrophys. J. 589, L101–L104 (2003).
Ishiguro, M. Cometary dust trail associated with Rosetta mission target: 67P/Churyumov Gerasimenko. Icarus 193, 96–104 (2008).
Lamy, P. & Toth, I. The colors of cometary nuclei — comparison with other primitive bodies of the Solar System and implications for their origin. Icarus 201, 674–713 (2009).
Levison, H. F. & Duncan, M. J. From the Kuiper belt to Jupiter-family comets: the spatial distribution of ecliptic comets. Icarus 127, 13–32 (1997).
Gladman, B., Marsden, B. G. & Vanlaerhoven, C. in The Solar System Beyond Neptune (eds Barucci, M. A. et al.) 43–57 (Univ. Arizona Press, 2008).
Jewitt, D. The active centaurs. Astron. J. 137, 4296–4312 (2009).
Jewitt, D. & Kalas, P. Thermal observations of centaur 1997 CU26. Astrophys. J 499, L103–L106 (1998).
Fernández, Y. R., Jewitt, D. C. & Sheppard, S. S. Thermal properties of centaurs Asbolus and Chiron. Astron. J. 123, 1050–1055 (2002).
Stansberry, J. et al. in The Solar System Beyond Neptune (eds Barucci, M. A. et al.) 161–179 (Univ. Arizona Press, 2008).
Davies, J., Spencer, J., Sykes, M., Tholen, D. & Green, S. (5145) Pholus. IAU Circ. 5698, 2 (1993).
Bus, S. J. et al. Stellar occultation by 2060 Chiron. Icarus 123, 478–490 (1996).
Duffard, R. et al. Astron. Astrophys. 564, A92 (2014).
Müller, T.G., Lellouch, E. & Fornaiser, S. in The Trans-Neptunian Solar System (eds Prialnik, D. et al.) 153–181 (Elsevier, 2020).
Peixinho, N. et al. Astron. Astrophys. 410, L29 (2003).
Tegler, S. C., Bauer, J. M., Romanishin, W. & Peixinho, N. in The Solar System Beyond Neptune (eds Barucci, M. A. et al.) 105 (Univ. Arizona Press, 2008).
Mainzer, A. et al. Preliminary results from NEOWISE: an enhancement to the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer for Solar System science. Astrophys. J. 731, 53 (2011).
Bauer, J. M. et al. Centaurs and scattered disk objects in the thermal infrared: analysis of WISE/NEOWISE observations. Astrophys. J. 773, 22 (2013).
Senay, M. C. & Jewitt, D. Coma formation driven by carbon monoxide release from comet Schwassmann–Wachmann 1. Nature 371, 229–231 (1994).
Paganini, L. et al. Ground-based infrared detections of CO in the centaur-comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1 at 6.26 AU from the Sun. Astrophys. J. 766, 100 (2013).
Wierzchos, K. & Womack, M. CO gas and dust outbursts from centaur 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann. Astron. J. 159, 136 (2020).
Kowal, C. T. & Gehrels, T. Slow-moving object Kowal. IAU Circ. 3129, 1 (1977).
West, R. M. A photometric study of (2060) Chiron and its coma. Astron. Astrophys. 241, 635–645 (1991).
Meech, K. J. & Belton, M. J. S. The atmosphere of 2060 Chiron. Astron. J. 100, 1323 (1990).
Womack, M., Sarid, G. & Wierzchos, K. CO in distantly active comets. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 129, 031001 (2017).
Sierks, H. et al. On the nucleus structure and activity of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. Science 347, aaa1044 (2015).
Stansberry, J. A. et al. Spitzer observations of the dust coma and nucleus of 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 463–468 (2004).
Schambeau, C. A. et al. A new analysis of Spitzer observations of Comet 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 1. Icarus 260, 60–72 (2015).
Bauer, J. M. et al. The large-grained dust coma of 174P/Echeclus. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacif. 120, 393 (2008).
Rieke, G. R. et al. The Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer (MIPS). Astrophys. J. Suppl. 154, 25–29 (2004).
Brucker, M. J. et al. High albedos of low inclination classical Kuiper belt objects. Icarus 201, 284–294 (2009).
Schaller, E. L. & Brown, M. E. Volatile loss and retention on Kuiper belt objects. Astrophys. J. Lett. 659, L61–L64 (2007).
Zahnle, K. J. & Catling, D. C. The cosmic shoreline: the evidence that escape determines which planets have atmospheres, and what this may mean for Proxima Centauri B. Astrophys. J. 843, 122 (2017).
Stansberry, J. A. et al. Physical properties of trans-Neptunian binaries (120347) Salacia-Actaea and (42355) Typhon-Echidna. Icarus 219, 676–688 (2012).
Grundy, W. M. et al. The mutual orbit, mass, and density of the large transneptunian binary system Varda and Ilmarë. Icarus 257, 130–138 (2015).
Lellouch, E. et al. “TNOs are Cool”: a survey of the trans-Neptunian region. IX. Thermal properties of Kuiper belt objects and centaurs from combined Herschel and Spitzer observations. Astron. Astrophys. 557, A60 (2013).
Müller, T. G. et al. “TNOs are Cool”: a survey of the transneptunian region. Earth Moon Planets 105, 209–219 (2009).
Fornasier, S. et al. “TNOs are Cool”: a survey of the trans-Neptunian region. VIII. Combined Herschel PACS and SPIRE observations of nine bright targets at 70–500 μm. Astron. Astrophys. 555, A15 (2013).
Vilenius, E. et al. “TNOs are Cool”: a survey of the trans-Neptunian region. X. Analysis of classical Kuiper belt objects from Herschel and Spitzer observations. Astron. Astrophys. 564, A35 (2014).
Vilenius, E. et al. “TNOs are Cool”: a survey of the trans-Neptunian region. XIV. Size/albedo characterization of the Haumea family observed with Herschel and Spitzer. Astron. Astrophys. 618, A136 (2018).
Emery, J. P. et al. Ices on (90377) Sedna: confirmation and compositional constraints. Astron. Astrophys. 466, 395–398 (2007).
Dalle Ore, C. M. et al. Composition of KBO (50000) Quaoar. Astron. Astrophys. 501, 349–357 (2009).
Pinilla-Alonso, N., Stansberry, J. A. & Holler, B. J. in The Trans-Neptunian Solar System (eds Prialnik, D. et al.) 395–412 (Elsevier, 2020).
Barucci, M. A. & Merlin, F. in The Trans-Neptunian Solar System (eds Prialnik, D. et al.) 109–126 (Elsevier, 2020).
Young, L. A., Braga-Ribas, F. & Johnson, R. E. in The Trans-Neptunian Solar System (eds Prialnik, D. et al.) 127–151 (Elsevier, 2020).
Snodgrass, C., Fitzsimmons, A., Lowry, S. C. & Weissman, P. The size distribution of Jupiter Family comet nuclei. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 414, 458–469 (2011).
Weiler, M., Rauer, H. & Sterken, C. Cometary nuclear magnitudes from sky survey observations. Icarus 212, 351–366 (2011).
Tancredi, G., Fernandez, J. A., Rickman, H. & Licandro, J. Nuclear magnitudes and the size distribution of Jupiter family comets. Icarus 182, 527–549 (2006).
Lisse, C. M., Chen, C. H., Wyatt, M. C. & Morlok, A. Circumstellar dust created by terrestrial planet formation in HD 113766. Astrophys. J. 673, 1106–1122 (2008).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Abundant circumstellar silica dust and SiO gas created by a giant hypervelocity collision in the ~12 Myr HD172555 system. Astrophys. J. 701, 2019–2032 (2009).
Lisse, C. M. et al. Spitzer evidence for a late-heavy bombardment and the formation of ureilites in η Corvi at ~1 Gyr. Astrophys. J. 747, 93 (2012).
Acknowledgements
We thank NASA, JPL, Caltech and the Spitzer project, without which none of the science described above would have been possible. As a NASA mission, local Solar System science measurements could have been downplayed or marginalized, but this was never the case. Instead, the authors experienced Spitzer observing schedules built around some of their time-critical observations, and large amounts of legacy science dedicated to their surveys. Project staff were welcoming and friendly but also highly professional and competent. The science return of NASA efforts like the Deep Impact, Stardust and OSIRIS-REx missions, and the ISON and ‘Oumuamua observing campaigns, were greatly enhanced by Spitzer’s observations. Notable support was provided by many, including L. Armus, S. Carey, C. Grillmair, G. Helou, R. Hurt, V. Meadows, L. Rebull, N. Silberman, G. Squires, T. Soifer, L. Storri-Lombardi and M. Werner. E.F.-V. also acknowledges support from the 2017 Preeminent Postdoctoral Program (P3) at UCF.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
C.L., D.E.T., Y.F., R.G., Y.P. and D.C. were responsible for the overall shape and structure of this manuscript, and much of the content of the introduction and the comet sections. Y.F., M.K., A.M., W.R., M.S., D.W., D.H. and C.W. were instrumental in producing the final form of the comet sections, as Y.F. drafted the Comet nucleus discussion, M.K., D.W., D.H. and C.W. the comet composition discussion, M.K., A.M. and D.E.T. the text on important individual comets, and W.R. and M.S. the discussion on comet trails. J.B., J.E. and J.S. were primarily responsible for creating the centaurs section. D.C., E.F.-V., N.P.-A. and J.S. wrote the KBO section.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Peer review information Nature Astronomy thanks Imre Toth for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lisse, C., Bauer, J., Cruikshank, D. et al. Spitzer’s Solar System studies of comets, centaurs and Kuiper belt objects. Nat Astron 4, 930–939 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-01219-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-01219-6
This article is cited by
-
Spitzer’s Solar System studies of asteroids, planets and the zodiacal cloud
Nature Astronomy (2020)