Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Clinical Research

Offspring sex modifies the association between early-pregnancy adiposity and 2-year-old physical activity—The Glowing Study

International Journal of Obesity volume 48, pages 542–549 (2024)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Background

Rodent models suggest that in utero exposure to under and overnutrition programs offspring physical activity (PA) behaviors. Such nexus has not been established in humans. This study evaluated the association of early pregnancy maternal adiposity with offspring PA at age 2 years (2-yo-PA) taking into consideration prenatal and postnatal factors.

Methods

Women (n = 153) were enrolled early in pregnancy (<10 weeks). At enrollment, maternal adiposity [air displacement plethysmography, fat mass index (FMI, kg/m2)] and PA (accelerometers, activity counts) were measured, and age, race, and education self-reported. Gestational weight gain was measured at the research facility. Offspring birthweight and sex were self-reported. At age 2 years, parental feeding practices (child feeding questionnaire) were assessed, whereas anthropometrics (length and weight) and physical activity (accelerometers) were objectively measured. Offspring body mass index z-scores were calculated. Generalized linear regression analysis modeled the association of maternal FMI and 2-yo-PA [average activity counts (AC)4/day].

Results

In bivariate associations, 2-yo-PA did not associate with maternal FMI (β = −0.22, CI = −0.73 to 0.29, p = 0.398). However, maternal FMI interacted with offspring sex in association with 2-yo-PA. Specifically, 2-yo-PA was lower in girls (β = −1.14, CI = −2.1 to −0.18, p = 0.02) compared to boys when maternal FMI was ≥7 kg/m2. When stratified by sex, 2-yo-PA of girls negatively associated with maternal FMI (β = −0.82, CI = −1.43 to 0.29, p = 0.009) while no association was found between maternal FMI and boy’s PA (β = 0.32, CI = −0.38 to 1.01, p = 0.376).

Conclusions

The association of 2-yo-PA and early pregnancy maternal adiposity was modified by offspring sex. Offspring’s physical activity decreased with increasing early pregnancy adiposity maternal in girls but not boys in second parity dyads.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Interaction between maternal adiposity and offspring sex in relation to offspring physical activity.
Fig. 2: Association of offspring physical activity with maternal adiposity and maternal physical activity measured early in pregnancy.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  1. Ravelli AC, van der Meulen JH, Michels RP, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Hales CN, et al. Glucose tolerance in adults after prenatal exposure to famine. Lancet. 1998;351:173–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Ravelli GP, Stein ZA, Susser MW. Obesity in young men after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. N Engl J Med. 1976;295:349–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Vahratian A. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among women of childbearing age: results from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Maternal Child Health J. 2009;13:268–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Diaz EC, Cleves MA, DiCarlo M, Sobik SR, Ruebel ML, Thakali KM, et al. Parental adiposity differentially associates with newborn body composition. Pediatr Obes. 2020;15:e12596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Heard-Lipsmeyer ME, Diaz EC, Sims CR, Sobik SR, Ruebel ML, Thakali KM, et al. Maternal adiposity is associated with fat mass accretion in female but not male offspring during the first 2 years of life. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2020;28:624–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Whitaker RC. Predicting preschooler obesity at birth: the role of maternal obesity in early pregnancy. Pediatrics. 2004;114:e29–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cunha Fda S, Dalle Molle R, Portella AK, Benetti Cda S, Noschang C, Goldani MZ, et al. Both food restriction and high-fat diet during gestation induce low birth weight and altered physical activity in adult rat offspring: the “Similarities in the Inequalities” model. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0118586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Johnson SA, Javurek AB, Painter MS, Murphy CR, Conard CM, Gant KL, et al. Effects of a maternal high-fat diet on offspring behavioral and metabolic parameters in a rodent model. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2017;8:75–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Wasenius NS, Grattan KP, Harvey ALJ, Barrowman N, Goldfield GS, Adamo KB. Maternal gestational weight gain and objectively measured physical activity among offspring. PloS One. 2017;12:e0180249.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Gilmore LA, Redman LM. Weight gain in pregnancy and application of the 2009 IOM guidelines: toward a uniform approach. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2015;23:507–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Henriksson P, Lof M, Forsum E. Assessment and prediction of thoracic gas volume in pregnant women: an evaluation in relation to body composition assessment using air displacement plethysmography. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:111–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Toftager M, Kristensen PL, Oliver M, Duncan S, Christiansen LB, Boyle E, et al. Accelerometer data reduction in adolescents: effects on sample retention and bias. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2013;10:140.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Wolff-Hughes DL, McClain JJ, Dodd KW, Berrigan D, Troiano RP. Number of accelerometer monitoring days needed for stable group-level estimates of activity. Physiol Meas. 2016;37:1447–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. International Fetal and Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st Century. Standards and Tools—Newborn size [Available from: https://intergrowth21.tghn.org/standards-tools/.

  15. Birch LL, Fisher JO, Grimm-Thomas K, Markey CN, Sawyer R, Johnson SL. Confirmatory factor analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: a measure of parental attitudes, beliefs and practices about child feeding and obesity proneness. Appetite. 2001;36:201–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Canadian Pediatric Endocrine Group. R Shiny Apps from CPEG-GCEP [Available from: https://www.cpeg-gcep.net/.

  17. McVeigh JA, Winkler EA, Healy GN, Slater J, Eastwood PR, Straker LM. Validity of an automated algorithm to identify waking and in-bed wear time in hip-worn accelerometer data collected with a 24 h wear protocol in young adults. Physiol Meas. 2016;37:1636–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Howie EK, Nelson A, McVeigh JA, Andres A. Physical activity, sedentary and sleep phenotypes in women during the first trimester of pregnancy. Matern Child Health J. 2023;27:1834–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bursac Z, Gauss CH, Williams DK, Hosmer DW. Purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression. Source Code Biol Med. 2008;3:17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Aiken CE, Ozanne SE. Sex differences in developmental programming models. Reproduction. 2013;145:R1–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhu S, Eclarinal J, Baker MS, Li G, Waterland RA. Developmental programming of energy balance regulation: is physical activity more ‘programmable’ than food intake? Proc Nutr Soc. 2016;75:73–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Labayen I, Ruiz JR, Ortega FB, Loit HM, Harro J, Villa I, et al. Exclusive breastfeeding duration and cardiorespiratory fitness in children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95:498–505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Verloigne M, Van Lippevelde W, Maes L, Yildirim M, Chinapaw M, Manios Y, et al. Levels of physical activity and sedentary time among 10- to 12-year-old boys and girls across 5 European countries using accelerometers: an observational study within the ENERGY-project. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2012;9:34.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Riddoch CJ, Bo Andersen L, Wedderkopp N, Harro M, Klasson-Heggebo L, Sardinha LB, et al. Physical activity levels and patterns of 9- and 15-yr-old European children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:86–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Ekelund U, Luan J, Sherar LB, Esliger DW, Griew P, Cooper A, et al. Moderate to vigorous physical activity and sedentary time and cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents. JAMA. 2012;307:704–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Hager ER, Gormley CE, Latta LW, Treuth MS, Caulfield LE, Black MM. Toddler physical activity study: laboratory and community studies to evaluate accelerometer validity and correlates. BMC Public Health. 2016;16:936.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Hnatiuk J, Ridgers ND, Salmon J, Campbell K, McCallum Z, Hesketh K. Physical activity levels and patterns of 19-month-old children. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44:1715–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Diaz EC, Williams DK, Cotter M, Sims CR, Wolfe RR, Andres A, et al. Breastfeeding duration modifies the association between maternal weight status and offspring dietary palmitate oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2022;116:404–14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Garland T Jr., Schutz H, Chappell MA, Keeney BK, Meek TH, Copes LE, et al. The biological control of voluntary exercise, spontaneous physical activity and daily energy expenditure in relation to obesity: human and rodent perspectives. J Exp Biol. 2011;214:206–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Eclarinal JD, Zhu S, Baker MS, Piyarathna DB, Coarfa C, Fiorotto ML, et al. Maternal exercise during pregnancy promotes physical activity in adult offspring. FASEB J. 2016;30:2541–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Mattocks C, Deere K, Leary S, Ness A, Tilling K, Blair SN, et al. Early life determinants of physical activity in 11 to 12 year olds: cohort study. Br J Sports Med. 2008;42:721–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the children and their parents participating in this study. We thank the clinical team from the Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center.

Funding

USDA-ARS Project 6026-51000-012-06 S. ECD, EKH, and EB are partially supported by the Center for Childhood Obesity Prevention (NIH-NIGMS award 5P20GM109096). EB is partially supported by the UAMS-TRI (NCATS UL1-TR003107 & KL2 TR003108). AA is partially supported by NIH UG1 0D024945, NIH U01 DA055352, NIH R01 ES032176 and NIH R01 HD099099.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, AR, USA

    Eva C. Diaz, Elisabet Børsheim & Aline Andres

  2. Arkansas Children’s Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA

    Eva C. Diaz, Elisabet Børsheim & Aline Andres

  3. Department of Pediatrics, Little Rock, AR, USA

    Eva C. Diaz, Elisabet Børsheim & Aline Andres

  4. Department of Biostatistics in the Colleges of Medicine and Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA

    David K. Williams

  5. University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA

    Erin K. Howie

Authors
  1. Eva C. Diaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David K. Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Erin K. Howie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Elisabet Børsheim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Aline Andres
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

ECD, EB, and AA were responsible for conception and design of study. ECD performed literature search. ECD, KW, EKH, EB, and AA analyzed the data. ECD, KW, EKH, EB, and AA interpreted the data. ECD prepared the manuscript. ECD, KW, EKH, EB, and AA critically revised and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eva C. Diaz.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Diaz, E.C., Williams, D.K., Howie, E.K. et al. Offspring sex modifies the association between early-pregnancy adiposity and 2-year-old physical activity—The Glowing Study. Int J Obes 48, 542–549 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-023-01446-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-023-01446-7

Search

Advanced search

Quick links